
Elementary 

Physiology 

AND Hygiene 



John G.Buck&€6^- Co^-'^^-r-r-^*CMIc;^G.o 



LIBRARY OF COi^GRESS. 



@]|ap*. - (ixipi|riB|f ^a. 

S]; elf ..'.3.5.x 4- 



UNITED STATES OF A3IERICA. 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



A TEXT-BOOK ON 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. HYGIENE, 
ALCOHOL, AND NARCOTICS. 



FOR USE IN INTERMEDIATE GRADES IN PUBLIC 
AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 



By CHARLES HrS'fOWELL, M.D., 

PROFESSOR OP HISTOLOGY AND MICROSCOPY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; AUTHOR OF 

" student's manual of histology; " " THE HUMAN TOOTH," '" MICROSCOPICAL 

DIAGNOSIS;" LATE EDITOR OF "THE MICROSCOPE," ETC., ETC. 



JFullg miustratetr, 

WITH ORIGINAL SKETCHES BY THE AUTHOR 




CHICAGO: 
JOHN C. BUCKBEE AND COMPANY. 

1889. 



Copyright, 1888, 
By John C Buckbee and Company. 



John Wilson and Son, Cambkidge. 



PEEFACE. 



This book has been written to meet the de- 
mand for the study of the human body in the 
intermediate and grammar grades of the pubhc 
schools. Especial attention has been given to 
the effects of alcoholic drinks on the organs and 
tissues of the body. In this' respect no state- 
ment has been made that is not capable of posi- 
tive proof The author has also strongly insisted 
on the injury to young men and boys caused 
by the habit of smoking tobacco, which in too 
many cases prepares the way for more disastrous 
habits. Good health is one of the safeguards not 
only against suffering, but also against crime. 
Vicious habits often result from a lack of knowl- 
edge of the laws of health, while both physical 
and mental health are frequently impaired by 



iv PREFACE. 

conditions which a proper understanding of hy- 
giene would obviate. Therefore^ special attention 
has been given to general hygiene. It is be- 
lieved that the study of the human body, together 
with a knowledge of the effects of alcohol upon 
it, will do much to make the coming generation 
wisC;, temperate, and moral. 



CHARLES H. STOWELL. 



University of Michigan, 

December, 1888. 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter " Page 

L What is Alcohol? 7 

II. Fermented Liquors 13 

III. Distillation 19 

IV. Cells 21 

V. The Bones 26 

VI. The Skeleton and the Joints ....... 34 

Vir. Hygiene of the Bones 41 

VIII. The Muscles 47 

IX. Exercise 53 

X. Our Eoods . 60 

XI. Cooking 70 

XII. Digestion 77 

XIII. Digestion in the Stomach 84 

XIV. Digestion in the Intestine 89 

XV. Alcohol, Tobacco, Opium, and the Digestive 

Organs 95 

XVI. Absorption 101 

XVII. The Blood 107 

XVIII. Circulation 113 

XIX. The Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the 

Heart and the Circulation 123 

XX. Respiration 127 

XXI. Ventilation . 137 

XXII. Sleep 140 

XXIII. The Kidneys 143 



vi CONTENTS. 

Chapter Page 

XXIV. The Skin .145 

XXV. Temperature of the Body 153 

XXVI. The Nervous System 160 

XXVII. Alcohol, Tobacco, Opium, and the Nervous 

System .............. 171 

XXVIII. The Sense of Sight .180 

XXIX. The Sense of Taste . 187 

XXX. The Senses of Smell and Touch 191 

XXXI. The Senses of Temperature, Weight, and 

Hearing 194 

XXXII. Opium, Tea, Coffee, and Tobacco 198 

XXXIII. Alcohol and Long Life 207 

XXXIV. What the Authorities say 209 

XXXV. Before the Doctor comes 213 

INDEX 219 

PRONUNCIATION OE WORDS 223 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



o>o<o 



CHAPTER I. 

WHAT IS ALCOHOL? 

What is Alcohol? Alcohol is that part of all spirituous 
drinks which intoxicates. It is lighter than water, color- 
less, and has a sharp, stinging taste. It burns readily, 
gives very little light, and no smoke, but a great deal of 
heat. When taken into the stomach it acts as a power- 
ful poison. 

How it was discovered. It is not known when fer- 
mented liquors were first used. But about seven hun- 
dred years ago chemists (or alchemists, as they were 
then called) were continually trying to discover two 
things. One was to find something that would turn 
all the common metals, as iron, into gold, and thus make 
the discoverer very wealthy. Another object was to 
find something that would prevent sickness and death, 
bring back youth to the aged, and keep the young from 
ever growing old. When this last should be found, it 
was to be called '• the elixir of life." 

Was Alcohol this Elixir ? It happened that about this 
time one of these chemists succeeded in distilling some 



8 A HEALTHY BODY. 

alcohol from a fermented liquid. He tasted it, and at 
once noticed its power to excite the body and make him 
forget care and trouble. He felt young again, and 
was now sure he was the possessor of the long sought- 
for " elixir." He advised his friends to drink freely of 
the newly discovered liquid, telling them it would bring 
back to them their youth and strength. But, as might 
be expected, after a wild career of drunkenness he died 
in a drunken stupor. 

How it is made. The solid parts of most ripe grains, 
as corn and barley, consist largely of starch. This 
starch can be changed into sugar, and then into alcohol 
and carbonic-acid gas, as described on page 14. In 
such ripe fruits as the grape and the apple we find sugar 
and water. If the juice of these fruits be pressed out 
and exposed to the sun and air, or be kept warm in any 
way, the sugar will be changed into two very different 
substances, — alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. While the 
juice is undergoing this change, bubbles may be seen 
coming to the surface ; this is the carbonic-acid gas rising 
and escaping. But the alcohol remains in the liquid. 

What causes Sugar to change to Alcohol? The mJcro- 
scope has shown that there are minute bodies floating in 
the air, too small to be seen by the unaided eye, called 
"ferments." These ferments are very numerous, and of 
different kinds, and each kind does a different work. 
One kind of ferment enters any warm, sweetish liquid it 
may find, as the juice of fruits, and working on its 



WHAT IS ALCOHOL? 9 

sugar or sweet principle, turns it to alcohol and carbonic- 
acid gas. Therefore we say that " ferments " cause tlie 
sugar to turn to alcohol. 

Where is Alcohol found? Some persons argue that be- 
cause fruits and grains are wholesome, therefore every- 
thing made from them must be wholesome too. This is 
a great mistake. The process of fermentation entirely 
changes them. There is no juice in a ripe grape that 
will burn, neither is there anything in it that will in- 
toxicate. The grape is wholesome until it begins to 
decay. So also is its juice wholesome while it is in the 
ripe fruit ; but it is quickly changed into a poisonous 
fluid after being pressed out. Milk is wholesome; but 
if it remain exposed to the san or air until it becomes 
sour, it is then likely to produce disease if taken into 
the body. Beef is wholesome ; but if we use it as a 
food after it has decayed, it will prove a serious experi- 
ment for us. So the juices of fruits are wholesome until 
they are allowed to decay. Then fermentation has set 
in, and their character is entirely changed. Alcohol 
is not a natural part of either the unripe or the fully 
ripe fruit or grain. 

The Alcohol Appetite. As in the case of opium and 
some other poisons, the use of alcohol in beer, wine, 
cider, or in any such liquor, excites an appetite for 
more alcohol. When we are thirsty, a small amount of 
water will satisfy us ; and when we are thirsty again, 
no more water will be required to quench the thirst 



10 A HEALTHY BODY. 

than before. But with alcohol it is different. One 
drink creates a desire for another ; and we shall find 
in a later chapter that its effect on the tissues is 
such that this desire will steadily increase as the sys- 
tem comes more and more under its influence. If a 
small quantity satisfies at first, more will soon be re- 
quired, until sooner or later nothing will quench the 
burning thirst until the whole body is made either 
stupid or insensible. 

This appetite may lie quiet for years, only to be awak- 
ened by the accidental taste of some alcoholic drink. 
To escape from its power, all drinks that contain the 
smallest quantity of alcohol should be carefully avoided. 
Such light drinks as cider and home-made beer, and 
such dishes as brandy sauce and wine jelly, should be 
shunned. They contain a certain quantity of alcohol, 
and therefore cannot be taken without danger ; for the 
general rule liolds true, that one taste or drink of alcohol 
creates a desire for another. 

How fast will it grow ? There is a great difference in 
the degree of rapidity of the growth of this appetite. 
In many cases the appetite is so easily formed, and 
grows with such speed, that when once it fastens itself 
on its victim, it never releases its hold while life lasts. 
No one intends to become a hard drinker when he takes 
his first glass of beer or wine. As a rule, that is done 
thoughtlessly. It is the treacherous power that alcohol 
possesses of creating an appetite for its use, and the 
growth of this appetite, that lead so many to ruin. 



WHAT IS ALCOHOL? U 

Its Terrible Power. This power of alcohol to create an 
ever-increasing* appetite for its use is one of the most 
fearful things that can be said about it. To take the 
first glass of cider, beer, or wine is a dangerous ven- 
ture ; the alcohol in it may excite an appetite which 
will eventually cost all one is worth in money, in body, 
and in mind for its gratification. 

Whom will it affect? Although persons of a highly 
nervous temperament are tlie soonest and the most seri- 
ously affected, yet none are sure of escape. It affects 
persons of all ages, all temperaments, and in all con- 
ditions of life. 

Heredity. The power of alcohol for evil is shown in 
the suffering it brings to the children of intemperate 
parents. As the faces and dispositions, the likes and 
dislikes, of the parents are present in their children, so 
the love for drink may descend from parent to child. 
When we have completed the study of the effects of 
alcohol on the organs and tissues of the body, and then 
recall the fact that the whole body may be brought un- 
der its influence, we shall not be surprised to know that 
its effects may be inherited as easily as any feature or 
characteristic of the body or mind. A young person 
may be entirely unaware that lie has this desire for 
strong drink until, by the taste of some light drink, 
or some sauce flavored with wine, the sleeping appetite 
is aroused. 

Alcohol causes such chano-es in tlie tissues of the 



12 A HEALTHY BODY. 

body that the children of intemperate parents are some- 
times born without reason or judgment. In a report to 
the Legislature of Massachusetts, Dr. Howe says that 
three fourths of all the idiots in that State are the chil- 
dren of intemperate parents. The lives of the parents 
and children are so closely linked that it may be stated 
as a rule, to which there are but few exceptions, that 
" where both parents are intemperate, their children will 
have an appetite for strong drink ;" and " where one par- 
ent is intemperate, the children are likely to inherit a 
love for strong drink." Children who inherit this love 
for drink, who are born with the alcohol appetite, be- 
gin the work of life at a fearful disadvantage ; and it 
will require great caution and courage on their part to 
conquer the evil for which they are not responsible. 



FERMENTED LIQUORS. 13 



CHAPTER II. 

FERMENTED LIQUORS. 

There are two classes of liquors, known as the " fer- 
mented " and the " distilled." 

What is necessary for Fermentation ? In the last chapter 
we said that the changing of sugar into carbonic-acid 
gas and alcohol was one kind of fermentation. When 
corn or barley is used to make a fermented liquor, the 
dried grains are moistened with water and allowed to 
" sprout." When they begin to grow, their starch is 
changed into sugar. If we taste a kernel of corn after 
it has sprouted, we notice at once that it is sweet. Dry 
sugar will not ferment, neither will a mixture ferment 
that has in it a great deal of sugar. A moderate de- 
gree of heat is necessary for fermentation, for neither 
a very cold nor a very hot mixture will ferment. 
These facts show that at least three things are neces- 
sary to produce alcohol, — first, sugar; second, water; 
and third, heat. But a fourth substance is also required. 
This is a living substance called a " ferment." 

What is Yeast? Yeast is a ferment. If a small drop 
of it be placed under the microscope, a large number 



14 A HEALTHY BODY. 

of minute bodies will be seen. It is these little bodies 
that excite a fermentation in warm mixtures when sugar 
is present ; this is called " vinous fermentation." 

What is Beer ? Water is added to the barley until 
it sprouts, when the starch is changed into sugar. 
Then heat is applied to kill the young sprouts and to 
drive off the water. The barley is now called '' malt." 
This malt is ground, and then soaked in water, in order to 
dissolve all the sugar. The sweet liquid is preserved, and 
yeast added to it, which causes vinous fermentation ; and 
this, as we already know, changes the sugar into carbonic- 
acid gas and alcohol. The carbonic-acid gas rises to the 
top and escapes in bubbles, while the alcohol remains 
mixed with the water. The result is beer, ale, or porter. 

Yeast in Bread. But yeast is also used in making 
bread ; so what is the difference between putting barley, 
water, and yeast together and getting beer, and putting 
wheat flour, water, and yeast together and getting 
bread ? In making bread, yeast is added to the mois- 
tened flour. This yeast acts upon the small amount of 
sugar present, changing it into carbonic-acid gas and 
alcohol. The gas becomes imprisoned in the sticky 
dough, making a great number of larger or smaller 
openings, which cause the bread to be light and porous. 
After the bread is placed in the oven the great heat 
causes the small amount of alcohol present to evapo- 
rate, and thus entirely escape at once. 



FEKMENTEi:) LIQU01^S. 15 



What is 


the Difference? 


: making Bread. 


In making Beer, 


1. Starch. 


1. Starch. 


2. Sugar. 


2. Sugar. 


3. Yeast. 


3. Yeast. 


4. Alcohol and carbonic- 


4. Alcohol and carbonic- 


acid gas. 


acid gas. 


o. The alcohol is evapo- 


5. The alcohol is retained. 


rated. 






Result. 


A valuable food, free 


A drink, containing a pow- 


from any poison. 


erful poison. 



The Amount of Alcohol in Fermented Liquors. 

In 100 parts of cider there are from 5 to 7 parts of alcohol. 
u u beer " " 5 to 7 '' '' 

" '' sherry wine " 15 to 20 '^ " 

What is Cider ? Cider is a drink made from the juice 
of apples. When this juice is first pressed from the 
fruit, there is no alcohol in it; but if it be exposed to the 
warm summer air, it will begin to ferment in from six to 
eight hours. It is not necessary that we add yeast to 
cause the fermentation, for the ferments are always pre- 
sent in the air. Fermentation is often hastened because 
there is mixed with the freshly pressed juice a little of 
the sour juice remaining in the mill from a previous 
grinding. This sour juice already contains alcohol ; and 
thus it follows that it is very difficult indeed to get any 
cider, even fresh from the mill, tliat does not contain 
some slight amount of alcohol. When bubbles begin to 



16 A HEALTHY BODY. 

rise, and the frotli gathers, it is a sign that the sugar is 
turning to alcohol. 

We have learned that one drink of alcohol creates a 
desire for another, and there is great danger that the 
use of cider, with its alcohol, will create a desire for 
drinks containing more alcohol ; until from this simple 
beginning, an appetite for the strongest drinks may be 
formed. 

What is Wine? Wine is made from the juice of such 
fruits as the grape, currant, and elderberry. Some per- 
sons make their own wines, because they think a home- 
made wine is not so harmful as are the wines of com- 
merce. Many times, however, these home-made wines 
contain more alcohol than the others, and are therefore 
equally, or more, harmful. A wine may be home-made, 
and free from any poisonous drugs that might be added 
to give it color or taste ; yet it contains the poison alco- 
hol, and is on this account alone positively injurious. 

Acetous Fermentation. Wine and other such drinks 
are the result of vinous fermentation ; besides this there 
is another fermentation, known as acetic, or acetous, 
fermentation. 

What causes it? Acetic fermentation is caused by 
the presence of minute living bodies called "- bacteria." 
Bacteria are everywhere present. They are the cause 
of all forms of decay. Meat putrefies, milk turns sour, 
and fruit spoils, because of the presence of these minute 
bodies. 



FEiniEXTED LIQUORS. 17 

How to prevent Decay. If wc keep any article of food 
free from these bacteria, it will not decay. It may be- 
come dry from the evaporation of its water, but it will 
never decay. Bacteria are killed by boiling, and they 
do not grow rapidly in either a cold or a liot mixture. 
Milk keeps better in a cool place simply because bacteria 
do not thrive so w^ell where it is cool. Scalding milk 
makes it keep longer, because the heat checks the growth 
of these minute bodies. 

The Object of canning Fruit. The object of canning 
fruit is to keep it from the destructive work of bac- 
teria. The heat used in canning the fruit kills the 
bacteria that are present, and the tightly sealed cans 
prevent others from entering. If the top of the can 
be loosened, and fresh air be allowed to enter, then 
some bacteria will surely enter also, as they are always 
present in the air. The bacteria, not the air, wall soon 
make the fruit ferment, or sour. These bacteria are 
so light that they easily float in the air, although they 
are so minute that they cannot be seen ; we can see only 
their effects. 

Dust in the Air. That vast numbers of particles of 
matter float in the air, any one can decide for himself. 
It is necessary only to look at a ray of light as it enters 
a darkened room, to see in it vast numbers of minute 
particles ; yet it requires many thousands of bacteria 
to make as large a mass as one of the smallest of these 
particles of dust. If these particles float so easily, how 
much more easily do the smaller bacteria float about ! 

2 



18 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Is there Alcohol in Vinegar? When the juice of the 
apple, or other fruit, has undergone vinous fermenta- 
tion, alcohol is formed in it. If this be allowed to 
remain in the vegetable juice, and be kept warm by ex- 
posure to the sun, or in some other way, another kind 
of ferment will enter the fluid and change the alcohol 
into a sharp acid, called acetic acid, and commonly 
known as vinegar. There is no alcohol in vinegar. It 
is used to flavor food, and is another illustration of how 
a ferment changes the substance it works upon. 



Dlb>TlLLATl()N. 19 



CHAPTER III. 

DISTILLATION. 

We have spoken of alcohol after it is obtained by 
fermentation and is still mixed with the fruit or plant 
juices. We must now describe how it is obtained in a 
pure state from these mixtures, and also how the vari- 
ous distilled liquors are made. 

What is Distillation ? A very easy experiment will show 
the principle of distillation. Notice the steam coming 
from a kettle of boiling water. This is water changed to 
vapor by heat. Hold a cold cup over this steam, and notice 
the drops of water gathering on it. The cold cup has con- 
densed the vapor to a liquid again. This is called ^' dis- 
tillation," because that word means '^ to flow in drops." 
Distillation, therefore, is simply changing a liquid to va- 
por, and then changing the vapor back to a liquid again. 

Alcohol evaporates easily. Alcohol evaporates very 
readily when exposed to the air, and will rapidly pass 
into vapor if heat be applied to it. It will evaporate with 
much less heat than is required for water to evaporate. 
That is, if we have a mixture of alcohol and water, we can 
apply a very little heat and cause the alcohol to pass off 
in a vapor, before the water will be warm enough to boil. 



20 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Way Alcohol is obtained. Now, if we take fermented 
liquors, which contain alcohol, water, and other ingre- 
dients, and expose them to a low heat, we can drive off 
the alcohol as a vapor, and leave the other ingredients 
behind. All that remains to be done is to condense this 
vapor, and we have alcohol. 

Brandy, Whiskey, and Rum. When these liquors are 
made, there is just enough heat applied to the fermented 
liquid to cause not only the alcohol to pass off, but also 
some of the water and certain other substances. V/hen 
these vapors are all condensed, they make brandy, whis- 
key, or rum. Each of these consists of at least one 
half pure alcohol, and sometimes they are even much 
stronger. Brandy is distilled from wine and cider; 
whiskey from fermented corn, barley, or other grains ; 
rum from fermented molasses. Sometimes these liquors 
are distilled two or three times, in order to make them 
stron2:er. 



"^O^ 



Pure Liquors. There is a popular impression that 
"pure" liquors are not harmful, and that if prepared 
in a careful manner they are even useful. This is surely 
a false impression ; for tlie purest liquors contain alco- 
hol, and it is the presence of that poison which works 
such injury. Bad, however, as the purest of them are, 
they are often made more poisonous by having mixed 
with them various coloring matters and poisonous 
drugs. 



cp:lls. 21 



CHAPTER IV. 

CELLS. 
Anatomy treats of the structure of the body. 
Physiology treats of the uses of the body. 

Hygiene treats of the methods by which health is 
preserved. 

To illustrate these definitions, we say that Anatomy 
describes the stomach ; Physiology tells what it does ; and 
Hygiene teaches us how to keep it healthy. 

We learn from Anatomy that the body is composed of 
bones, muscles, nerves, and blood-vessels. From Physi- 
ology we learn what all these parts are for, — how the 
blood circulates ; how we breathe ; and how we digest 
our food. Hygiene teaches us that there are certain 
laws of health, and that we must obey those laws or 
suffer the penalty. It tells us what kinds of food we 
should eat, and informs us as to the care we should 
take of the whole body. 

The Eye requires Aid. The eye is a most wonderful 
organ, yet there is a limit to its capability. The tele- 



22 A HEALTHY BODY. 

scope and the microscope are used as aids to the eye. 
By means of the telescope the astronomer can see many 
stars that are entirely invisible to the naked eye. The 
microscope shows many things about the body that 
could not be seen without it. The botanist uses it in 
his work, and he finds by it that every flower and fruit, 
every blade of grass, and every piece of wood is made up 
of the most minute parts, called " cells." 

A Potato. To illustrate this, let us examine the inside 
of a potato. AVith the unaided eye it looks as if it con- 
sisted of one common substance. But the microscope 
shows that it consists of large cells ; and in these cells 
are vast numbers of little grains containing starch, 
which are hence called starch-grains. 

How to obtain this Starch. Cut a potato in thin slices, 
and place these in water. By stirring them you can 
make the water look milky. Now remove the pieces of 
potato, and let the water become quiet. A white powder 
will settle to the bottom of the dish. This is pure potato 
starch, and when placed under the microscope will show 
some oval bodies, as illustrated in Fig. 1. 

Other Starches. We take the wheat to the miller in 
order that he may remove some layers of cells that are 
indigestible, and return the rest to us as wheat flour. 
The starch grains in this do not look like those of potato ; 
they are smaller, and more nearly round. (Fig. 1.) Oat 
starch that is used for cooking is composed of grains 



CKLLS. 



23 



shaped otherwise, as is seen in the figure. Even a leaf 
is shown by the microscope to consist of minute cells. 



Cells in the Vegetable Kingdom. Thus we learn that 
every part of the vegetable kingdom is composed of cells. 



n 






tr^ °G) 




qj.'fe.o " 



W&^^ 



Fig. 1. Starch-grains: (1) from the potato, — potato starch -grains ; (2) from 
wheat, — wheat starch -grains; (3) from oat, — oat starch-grains; (4) cells from 
the surface of a leaf. 

Cells in the Animal Kingdom. The same thing is true 
of the animal kingdom. When we look at a drop of 
blood we little think that the microscope would show in 
it vast numbers of minute cells ; and yet there are as 
many as five millions of them in every drop. Then we 
look at the skin, and think it is one solid mass of cover- 
ing ; but the microscope shows that it is made up of a 
number of layers of cells. 



24 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



The Whole Body a Collection of Cells. By means of the 
microscope we learn that all the organs and tissues of 
the system are composed of minute bodies, called cells. 
(Pig. 2.) 

The Cells are not alike. There are round cells, long, nar- 
row cells, and cells of all shapes and sizes. Some of 




Fig. 2. Cells from different parts of the body, —(1) from the inside of the 
cheeks; (2) from the liver; (3) from the nail of a finger; (4) from the bronchial 
tubes; (5) from the intestines; (6) from beneath the skin; (7) from muscle; 
(8) from the eye; (9) from the stomach. 

them are so small that it would take three or four thou- 
sand of them, side by side, to make an incli in length ; 



CELLS. 25 

while others are so large that they can almost be seen 
with the unaided eye. Some are colorless, others are 
lightly colored, and still others are jet black. 

What is Histology? After we have studied the body 
as far as we are able with the unaided eye, there is still 
much to be learned by means of the microscope. Micro- 
scopic anatomy, or histology, is a description of the 
minute structure of animals or plants. 



26 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE BONES. 

The Frame-work. In building a house it is necessary 
that there should be a strong frame-work ; for on this 
will be fastened the boards, and on the boards will be 
placed the shingles, and the whole will be beautifully 
painted. The frame-work of a house is so constructed 
that there are many rooms in it. These rooms have 
openings between them, so that things can be carried 
from one part of the house to another. There is a 
frame-work of our bodies, dividing each body into a 
number of rooms, and giving a firm support, to which 
many important parts can be attached. This frame- 
work also serves as a protection to many delicate organs 
that are placed in some of its rooms ; it is composed 
of bone. 

General Description. There are over two hundred bones 
in the body. Some of them are long, large, and round, 
while others are thin and flat; while there are others 
that are so irregular in shape that it is very difficult to 
describe them. The largest bone in the body is the 
femur, or thigh-bone. (Fig. 3.) 



THE BONES. 



27 



Uses of the Bones. Some of the bones are used princi- 
pally to protect delicate organs that would otherwise be 
too much exposed to injury. The eye is well protected 
in this way. It has walls of bone 
all about it, except in front, where it 
is necessary for the light to enter. 
The brain is completely surrounded 
by a bony wall, and the heart and 
lungs are well protected by the 
bony walls of the chest. Some bones 
are used for the attachment of mus- 
cles, while others are for the purpose 
of giving proper shape to the body. 

Are the Bones solid ? This is easily 
answered by examining one of the 
large bones of any animal after it 
has been sawed open. If it be sawed 
lengthwise, we shall find that it is 
hollow, except at the ends. Why is 
this ? It is necessary that the bones 
should be not only strong, but also 
light; and it has been found that a 
hollow bone of a certain length . and 
a certain thickness is both stronger 
and lighter than it would be if the 
same amount of material had been 
solid and of the same lenQ;th. 

The ends of the long bones are 
filled with little bands of bone, giv- mm-, or thic^h-bone. 




28 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



ing them a honey-combed or spongy appearance. If one 
of the thin, flat bones of the head, or one of the small 
bones of the hands or feet, should be cut open, there 
would be found in it this same spongy bone. 

The Marrow of Bone. The large cavity inside the long 
bones, and all the spaces in spongy bone, are filled with 

a yellowish or 
reddish sub- 
stance, called 
"marrow." This 
is composed of 
fat and cells. 




Fig. 4. 



The blood-vessels of bone, as seen with a 
microscope. 



Can Bone bleed? 

The bones are 
well supplied 
with blood-ves- 
sels, even the 
hardest part of 
a bone having in it an immense number of small ones. 
(Fig. 4.) Nearly all these blood-vessels are so small 
that they can be seen only by means of a microscope ; 
yet if we examine the outside of a large bone of any 
animal, we can usually find one or more holes through 
which a blood-vessel has passed. 



The Soft Parts of Bone. Besides the blood-vessels, 
there are countless numbers of soft cells all through the 
bones. (Fig. 6.) All the black, spider-shaped bodies 



THE HONKS. 29 

in the illustration are the cells of bone as they appear 
when examined with a microscope. The soft parts of 
bone, therefore, are composed of blood-vessels, cells, and 




Fig. 5. Human bone, showing two blood-vessels and a number of 
bone-cells, magnified. 

nerves, and a frame-work of soft fibres. These are called 
the animal matter of bone. 

The Animal Matter. The animal matter can all be taken 
out of a bone by simply putting it into the fire. The 
shape of the bone will not be changed, it will only become 
lighter and whiter. After the animal matter has all been 
burned out, the bone can easily be broken, and pounded 
into a fine powder. On the other hand, if the bones 
were composed of animal matter alone, we could bend 
them into any shape without their breaking ; in fact, 
they would be of little use to us in this condition. 



80 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Mineral Matter. The hard part of bone is composed 
largely of lime, which may be removed by soaking the 
bone in a weak acid for a few hours. The bone will 
retain its former shape ; but it can be easily bent, and 
even tied in a knot, as shown in the illustration. (Fig. 6.) 




Fig. 6. A bone tied in a knot, after the mineral matter 
has been removed by an acid. 

The blood-vessels and the cells are still in this bone, 
while the soft fibres of tissue keep it in shape. 

A very interesting experiment can be made to illus- 
trate the action of an acid on mineral matter. Place 
an egg in strong vinegar for a few hours. The acid of 
the vinegar will dissolve the lime, and leave nothing 
but a soft membrane for a covering. The egg can now 
be pushed through the opening of a bottle much smaller 
than its own diameter. As soon as it is in the bottle 
it will assume its original shape ; and the puzzle is to 
have your friends discover how such a large egg could 
be put through so small an opening. 

Bend, or break? From what has been said, it is very 
clear that if the bones do not contain the proper amount 
of mineral matter, they will bend before they will break. 
On the other hand, if they do not contain enough animal 
matter, they will easily break. 



THE BONES. 



31 



In early life there is alwcays an excess of animal mat- 
ter; hence children will tumble about and have heavy 
falls without breaking a bone. Sometimes children are 
allowed to walk before there is enough mineral matter 
in their bones to bear much pressure ; then the weight 
of the body causes the bones of the legs to bend. We 
say such children are "bow-legged." 



Young Bones may have their Shape changed. When the 
bones have an abundance of animal matter in them, 
as in early life, they 
can be moulded, and 
their natural form 
greatly changed. The 
Chinese know this, and 
so they bind the feet of 
their young children un- 
til the bones are so 
changed that one can 
hardly recognize them 
as belonging to the 
feet. (Fig. 7.) Some tribes of Indians bind the 
heads of their children to boards in order to change 
their shape. 




Fig. 7. A Chinese foot, deformed by 
andaging. (From a plaster cast.) 



Nature changes the Shape of Bones. In order that some 
of the bones may better perform their work, Nature 
causes their shape to be changed. (Fig. 8.) This is 
well illustrated in the case of the lower jaw, which 
changes its shape as the person advances in years. 



32 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



The Covering of Bone. Surrounding each bone is a 
thin membrane, called the " periosteum," which is essen- 
tial to the life of the bone. It is well supplied with 

1 




Fig. 8. (1) is a side view of the lower jaw at birth; (2) at fifteen years 
of age ; (3) at thirty years of age ; (4) at seventy years of age. 



THE BONES. 



38 



blood-vessels, some of which pass directly into the bone 
through the canals whicli wc have already mentioned. 




Fig. 9. A bone with the periosteum partly peeled off. 



The illustration shows how it is possible to peel off this 
membrane from any fresh bone. 



34 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE SKELETON AND THE JOINTS. 

The Bones of the Skull. The bones of the skull make a 
complete covering, or tight box, for the brain, with only 
a few holes in it to allow the nerves and blood-vessels to 
pass in and out. Tliese bones also protect the organs of 
sight, smell, hearing, and taste. 

The Bones of the Trunk. The bones of the trunk are 
the spinal column, or backbone, the ribs, and the breast- 
bone. 

The Spinal Column. The spinal column consists of 
twenty-four small bones, resembling the one in the fig- 
ure, and two irregular ones at the lower end of these. 
Between these bones, and attached to them, are soft 
cushions of gristle or cartilage. These cushions act as 
springs, so that running or jumping, or even walking, 
may not jar the body too greatly. (Fig. 10.) If all 
these cushions could be piled up together, they would 
make a mass over six inches in thickness, and it would 
be as elastic as so much rubber. If we walk or stand 
very much during the day, these cushions become flat- 
tened ; but during the night they regain their former 



THE SKELETON AND THE JOINTS. 



thickness. On account of this elas- 
ticity we are a trifle shorter at night 
than in the morning. For the same 
reason we are a trifle shorter when 
standing than when lying. If it 
were not for these cushions, we 
could not run or jump, or even 
walk, without jarring, or perhaps 
greatly injuring, either the brain or 
the spinal cord. 

Each one of the bones of the 
spinal column is called a '' ver- 
tebra." Each vertebra has a large 
opening in it (Fig. 11.)? so arranged 
that when all these bones are prop- 
erly put together, the openings will 
form a canal, in which the spi- 
nal cord rests. This canal is 
continuous with an opening at the 
base of the skull, so that the spi- 
nal cord and the brain may be 
connected. 

The illustration (Fig. 10) indi- 
cates that the spinal column is not 
straight. It is bent backward near 
the shoulders, and forward near the 
waist. 



^ ^ 






•f^ 



The Ribs. There are twelve of 
these slender, curved bones on each 



36 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



side of the chest. Behind, they are attached to the 
spinal column, while in front, some of them are attached 
to the breast-bone, three to each other, and two are not 
joined to anything ; these two are called the '^ floating 
ribs." 

If we look at the figure (Fig. 45, p. 131) of the' chest, or 
thorax, we can understand how easy it would be to 

bring the ends of the 
lower ribs nearer to- 
gether, by tying a cord 
or band around the 
lower part of the chest. 
Some persons seem to 
think that they know bet- 
ter than Nature what 
the shape of their chests 
should be ; so they try 
to make their waists as 
small as they can. They 
call it '^ fashion;" others 
call it ''- tight-lacing ; " 
while the doctors call it 
" a great wrong." 




Fig. 11. One of the bones of the spinal 
column. A is an opening in each side 
for a blood-vessel ; B is the point on which 
the bone above it rests; c is the long 
process that extends from the back of the 
spinal column; s c is the large opening 
in the centre for the spinal cord. 



The Tipper Limbs. There are five large bones and 
several small ones that belong to the upper ex- 
tremity. 

The collar-bone extends from the front of the shoulder 
to the top of the breast-bone. 

The shoulder-blade is behind the arm and between it 



THE SKELETON AND THE JOINTS. 37 

and the spine. The outer ends of these two bones and 
the upper end of the arm make tlie shoulder. 

From the shoukler to the elbow there is one large 
bone, called the " humerus." From the elbow to the 
hand, which is known as the ''fore-arm," there are two 
bones. 

A number of small bones form the wrist and the 
hand, and these are so arranged as to allow a variety 
of movements. 

The Lower Limbs. The bones of the lower extremity 
of the body are very like those of the upper. 

The pelvic bones can be felt on the sides of the lower 
part of the body. These, with the upper end of the 
thigh-bone, form the hip. From the hip to the knee 
there is one large bone, known as the " femur." From 
the knee to the foot there are two bones. A small 
bone, called the " knee-pan," covers the front of the 
knee-joint. 

There are a number of small bones in the foot, ar- 
ranged, as in the case of the wrist and the hand, so as 
to render a variety of movements possible. 

The Arch of the Foot. The bones of the foot are so 
put together that they form an arch, so that only the 
front and the back of it touch the floor. This arch 
is useful in protecting the body from too severe a shock 
when one is running or jumping ; for when the weight 
of the body is thrown upon the arch, its centre is pressed 
downward, and thus it acts like a spring. 



38 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



The Joints. There may be only two, or there may be 
many bones forming a joint. 



The Joints are oiled. On the ends 
of the bones which come to- 
gether to make a joint there is a 
kind of gristle, called 
'' cartilage/' This is 
covered with a very 
thin membrane, 
which is constantly 
secreting, or pouring 
out, a watery sub- 
stance. This sub- 
stance, called the 
"joint-water," serves 
the same purpose that 
oil does when it is put 
upon the joints or 
wheels of machinery. 




Fig. 12. A section 
through the hip-joint. 
The inside of the end 
of the femur is seen to 
consist of loose, spongy- 
bone. The solid out- 
side is becoming thicker 
at the lower part. 



If the membrane covering the 
cartilage should become inflamed or injured in any 
way, it might fail to furnish enough of this fluid ; 
then the movements of the joint would be painful, 
and the joints themselves would become stiff and mis- 
shapen. 



The Ligaments. The bones are held in place at the 
joint by means of white, shining bands of tissue called 
'^ ligaments." A "sprain" is an injury to the liga- 
ments. 



THE SKELETON AND THE JOINTS. 



39 



Tight and Loose Joints. The ligaments of some persons 
are very firm, and the joints are not easily moved. In 
others the ligaments are not so firm, and the joints are 
more easily moved. We say of these latter that they 
are "- loose-jointed." When a bone gets " out of joint," 
it breaks its way through these ligaments. 




Fig. 13. The hip-joint, opened. 



Different Kinds of Joints. Most of the joints are either 
''ball-and-socket" joints, or "hinge" joints. The hip 
and the shoulder are good illustrations of the former, 
for they allow movements in every direction. The 
elbow is an illustration of a " hinge " joint, because, 
like the hinge of a door, it allows movements only in 
two directions. 



40 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Fig. 12 shows the ball resting tightly in the socket. 
Fig. 13 shows the hip-joint, with the outer ligaments re- 
moved. Only one ligament is left, — that which is 
seen to connect the centre of the ball with the centre 
of the socket. 



HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 41 



CHAPTER VIL 

HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 

We have already learned that the bones of young per- 
sons are easily bent because there is so much animal 
matter in them. So it is possible, simply by improper 
ways of walking and sitting, to deform the body and 
make it crooked and irregular. 

How to have a Good Form. If we wish to have a fine, 
erect form, we must endeavor to keep the bones of the 
spine in their natural position. If we do this when 
we are young, and when the bones are daily becoming 
more solid, then when our bodies are well developed w^e 
shall find that we cannot with comfort walk or sit 
crooked. 

How to walk. To keep the spine in its natural posi- 
tion we should walk with the shoulders thrown well 
back and the whole body erect. If a person gets in the 
habit of " stooping " when he walks, or of sitting at 
the table " all bent over," the elastic cushions between 
the vertebrae will become so compressed on one side that 
they w^ill lose their elasticity there, so that when he 



42 A HEALTHY BODY. 

tries to straighten up, it is of no use ; he is '' round- 
shouldered,". and will remain so. 

Straight, or Crooked. Let us look at two persons. One 
stands as '' straight as an arrow ; " he sits upright at 
the table, and people say, '^'What a fine formP' We 
should not pick out such a person as likely to have 
consumption, for " he looks too healthy." 

The other person is round-shouldered, his chest is 
narrow, it is an effort for him to run or jump, and he 
is subject to coughs and colds. We wish to tell him to 
'^ straighten up," but it would do no good for him to try 
now ; the bones are well filled with mineral matter, and 
the elastic cushions are old and unyielding. In youth 
we should throw off any ^' tired feeling" we may have, 
and keep erect, that we may make sure of having a good 
form and a healthy body for the future. 

How to Stand. When some persons stand, they rest 
their weight on one foot ; this habit is sure to make 
the hip-bones grow out of shape. It will bend the spine, 
and, sooner or later, make it incline toward one side. 
As a rule, it is better to stand with the weight of the 
body on both feet. To do this, one thing is certainly 
necessary, — there must be easy shoes to stand in. 

Proper Shoes. When buying shoes it is customary to 
have them fitted while seated on a chair or couch, and 
the dealer is cautioned " not to get them too large." 
So a good, snug fit is made. The arch of the foot is 



HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 43 

forgotten ; and it follows that when the weight of the 
body is thrown on the feet, the arch is flattened and the 
foot lengthened. The shoe is now altogether too small, 
and great discomfort and harm result. These conse- 
quences will be all the more marked if the shoe be made 
with a high heel. A high heel throws the whole body 
out of line, and is the cause of a number of most dis- 
tressing complaints. The low ''common-sense" heel is 
far better, and we hope our young friends will always 
choose it, showing, by their preference, that they care 
more for a " healthy body " than for fashion. 

Support for the Feet. There ought to be a support for 
the feet in all schoolrooms ; the seats should be low 
enough to let them rest on the floor. 

Form, not deform. The bones are not fully developed 
until the person is at least twenty-five years of age ; and 
it should be remembered that even after this they in 
some degree change their soft substance. We ought to 
do everything in our power to aid in forming our bones, 
rather than in deforming them. 

ALCOHOL AND THE BONES. 

If we remember that the bones are filled with blood- 
vessels, nerves, and cells, and that these cannot be in 
a sound condition unless the whole body be healthy ; 
and if we remember that all forms of alcohol seriously 
affect the animal matter of the bone while it is in a 



44 A HEALTHY BODY. 

growing state, — we may appreciate the effect on the 
body of that drug. By acting through the nerves and^ 
blood, alcohol has great power in retarding the develop- 
ment of the frame-work of the body. 

The early use of tobacco also will seriously affect the 
proper development of the bones. It may be put down 
as a very general rule that the early use of tobacco and 
alcoholic drinks is likely to stunt the growth of the 
bones, and thus actually to dwarf the whole body. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACllEUS. 45 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

1. Procure from the meat-market a piece of fresh bone 
that has been cut transversely. Observe the oily matter on 
the inside ; this soft material is the marrow. 

2. Take this same bone and cut down upon it with a 
knife, and thus peel off the covering membrane. This 
is the periosteum. 

3. Procure any bone and burn it in the stove. Show 
how easily this can be broken by striking it with a ham- 
mer. Show how easily it can be pulverized by a continued 
use of the hammer. Try hammering on a fresh bone, 
and call attention to the marked difference in the results. 
This experiment demonstrates the existence of mineral 
matter in bone. 

4. Procure one of the bones of a fowl, such as the leg-bone 
of a chicken, or even one of the ribs. Place it in a solution 
consisting of water three parts, and nitric acid one part. 
After it has been in the acid a few days, place in water for 
a short time, in order to wash out the acid. The length of 
time required for the acid to complete its work will depend 
on the size of the bone. For a small bone three or four 
days will suffice ; for a larger bone, a week may be re- 
quired. The acid has done its work when a needle can be 
pushed through the bone. The bone can now be bent and 
doubled, and even tied in a knot. What remains after 
the elimination of the mineral matter by means of the 
acid is the animal matter. 

5. Take any old dry bone. Saw it in two lengthwise. 
Observe that the bone is hollow except near the ends, which 
are filled with a honey-combed arrangement of bone. This 
is the spongy bone. 



46 A HEALTHY BODY. 

6. Look on the surface of any dried bone for minute 
openings. When found, they can be shown as representing 
the places where the larger blood-vessels enter the bone. 

7. It is easy to procure at the meat-market the smooth^ 
round end of the hip-bone of some animal. Have this cut 
lengthwise. When the cut parts are placed together, they 
will show the ball of the " ball-and-socket^^ joint. In the 
centre of the end the ligament is attached, as illustrated 
in Fig. 13. When the cut parts are separated they will 
show the layer of cartilage that covers the end of the bone. 

8. The elastic cushion between the vertebrae may be pro- 
cured in any meat-market, as well as the two adjoining 
vertebrae, cut lengthwise. The relative amount of cartilage 
is readily comprehended, as well as its use. 



THE MUbCLES. 47 



CHAPTER VIIL 

THE MUSCLES. 

Their Number, Size, and Purpose. There are more than 
five hundred muscles in the body, nearly all of which 
are arranged in pairs, so that the two sides of the 
body are almost alike. Some of these muscles are very 
small, while others reach from the hip to the knee. 
Their primary object is to move the different parts of 
the body ; but they also aid in giving proper shape to the 
body, and in enclosing cavities, — as the mouth. Nearly 
half the weight of the body is due to muscle. 

Two Parts of a Muscle. The muscles that are under the 
control of the will consist of two parts, — the large red 
portion, called the body ; and the white, shining ends, 
called the tendons. 

The Tendons. The tendons are easily seen by examin- 
ing the muscles, or flesh, on the leg of a fowl, after 
the removal of the skin. They can also be felt at the 
wrist when the fingers are moved. 

Nearly all the muscles of the fore-arm terminate in 
tendons near the wrist. The tendons are fastened to the 



48 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



fingers, so that when the muscles of the arm or fore- 
arm contract, they draw these tendons, and thus move 
the fino'ers. 




Size of the Tendons. The tendons are always much 
smaller than the muscles to which they belong. This 

is well illustrated in Fig. 14. 
The muscles at the middle 
of the fore-arm, as shown in 
the figure, are quite large, 
while the tendons at the wrist 
are so small that it can be 
spanned with the thumb and 
finger. This makes the move- 
ments at the wrist more free 
and easy. 

The largest tendon in the 
body is at the back of the leg. 
It is attached by a muscle to the 
heel, so that when that muscle 
contracts, the tendon draws up 
the heel, as in walking. 

The muscle is the active 
part ; the tendon is only a 
cord which can be pulled by 
the muscle. 




Fig. 14. The muscles of the 
arm, ending in the white ten- 
dons at the wrist. 



classes, 



Two Kinds of Muscle. The 
muscles are divided into two 
the voluntary, and the involuntary. 



THE MUSCLES. 



49 



We can move some muscles whenever we wish, as 
those of tlie face and the arm. Because we are thus 
able to control their move- 
ments, they are called vol- 
untary. But some muscles 
cannot be controlled in this 
way. They do their work 
whether we wish it or not. 
We cannot control their move- 
ments by the will, so they 
are called involuntary. The 
muscles of the stomach and 
the heart are of this variety. 
The heart beats and the stom- 
ach contracts, and we have no 
power to stop them. 




The Uses of Muscle. Nearly 
all the voluntary muscles are 
attached to bone at each end ; 
it is because they contract and 
move the bones that we are 

able to run and jump and perform all the movements 
of which the body is capable. 



Fig. 15. Yohmtary muscle, 
with its blood-vessels. (1) the 
muscle fibres ; (2) the blood-ves- 
sels, magnified. 



The Structure of Muscle. If a piece of boiled, lean 
meat, which is voluntary muscle, be examined, it will 
be noticed that it readily falls apart into little threads 
of tissue ; and with needles these little threads may 
be easily divided into still smaller threads. If one 

4 



50 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



of these small threads be placed under the microscope 

it will be found to consist of many small fibres. (Fig. 15.) 

Therefore we say that voluntary muscle is made up of 

many small fibres, all bound together. Our illustration 

shows four of these fibres, and also the blood-vessels 

that belong to them. 

Involuntary muscle is 

composed of very small 

cells which are placed close 

together. The illustration 

shows them separated from 

each other, so that their 

shape may be better seen. 

(Fig. 16.) 




The Contraction of Muscle. 

The muscles are of use to 

us because they have the 

power to contract. 

When a muscle contracts, it becomes thicker, harder, 

and shorter. (Fig. 17.) That it becomes harder and 



Fig. 16. The cells of involiintary 
muscle^ magnified. 




Fig. 17. a, a muscle relaxed, before it contracts ; B, the same muscle 
contracted. It is shorter and thicker, 

thicker, is easily shown by placing the thumb on the end 
of the little finger, and pressing the fingers of the other 



THE MUSCLES. 



51 



hand on the ball of the thumb. It can also be shown by 
placing the hand on the front of the arm and raising the 
fore-arm ; the muscle will be felt to swell and harden. 

That the muscle shortens, is proved by the fact that it 
moves the parts to wliich it is attached. All the move- 
ments of the body are made by the contraction of its 
muscles. 

The two diagrams below show how the contraction, or 
shortening, of the muscles causes the parts to which they 




^^^i^^i^^^H 




Diagrams illustratino^ the action of muscles. 

Fig. 19. Muscles of the leg. 



Fig. 18. Muscles of the arm: s, the 
shoulder ; e, the elbow ; H, the 
hand: m, muscles. 



are attached to move. In Fig. 18 it is clear that if 
the muscle on the front of the arm should contract, the 
fore-arm and the hand would be raised ; while if the 
muscle on the back of the arm should shorten, they would 
be drawn down afrain. 



52 A HEALTHY BODY. 

This principle is again illustrated in Fig. 19. It is 
clear that if the muscle on the front of the leg should 
shorten, it would pull on its tendon and raise the foot ; 
while if the muscle on the back of the leg should shorten, 
it would pull on its tendon and raise the heel. These 
illustrations show the principle on which all the volun- 
tary muscles act. 



EXERCISE. 63 



CHAPTER IX. 

EXERCISE. 

Exercise of the Muscles. If a person should place his 
arm in a sling and not use it for a few months, it would 
gradually become smaller and smaller. The arm would 
become smaller because its muscles would first become 
soft and flabby, and then, at last, would nearly all disap- 
pear. But we know that by use a muscle becomes larger, 
harder, and stronger. The blacksmith always has large 
arms, and the arm he uses the most will be the larger. 

Exercise is necessary. It is absolutely necessary to 
exercise the muscles, if we wish to keep them healthy 
and strong. Exercise makes the blood circulate better ; 
so it follows that when we are exercising our muscles we 
are also giving a better circulation to the blood in the 
brain and other organs of the body. 

Over-Exercise is bad. But over-exercise is nearly as bad 
as no exercise. It is not a good practice to play or exer- 
cise in any way until one is " all tired out." 

Exercise all Parts of the Body. We should not exercise 
any particular part of the body to the neglect of any 



64 A HEALTHY BODY. 

other part, but we should endeavor to develop all parts 
equally well. 

No one admires a man who is all muscle and no 
brain ; neither do we like to see one who is very 
learned, and yet is constantly suifering from disease. 
Therefore, if we have been studying all day, a brisk 
walk in the evening will make us feel refreshed ; while 
if we have been using the muscles at hard work 
during the day, reading or studying is the proper 
exercise. 

Expression. The various expressions of the face are 
caused by the contraction of voluntary muscles ; and as 
a muscle is strengthened by exercise, so it follows that 
those muscles of the face which are used the most will 
become the strongest. 

If the muscles we use when we laugh are made to con- 
tract a great deal, they will become stronger than their 
neighbors ; so that even when a person is not thinking 
of laughing, these muscles will exert an influence : there 
is consequently a slight expression of laughter left on 
the face. We say such a person has a pleasant smile 
all the time. If a person cries a great deal, there will 
be left a slight expression of crying. We say such 
a person has a sad face. If a person is in the habit 
of being cross and sullen, it will leave its effect in the 
features. 

As a result of these observations, we establish the rule 
that the expression which is most constantly on the face 
will become permanent. This is the reason why it is 



EXERCISE. 50 

possible to tell the disi)osition of a person by the expres- 
sion of the countenance. 

Do you wish to have a hard and ill-natured face? 
Tiien while young fill the mind with hard and ill-natured 
thoughts. Do you prefer a face that shows kindness and 
honesty? Then cultivate a pleasant disposition, show 
kindness, and be honest to all. Let the mind be filled with 
only those thoughts which are true and noble and kind. 

General Exercise. Exercise should be taken out of 
doors as much as possible, since pure air is of the great- 
est importance. No one need fear taking cold out of 
doors in the winter season if he keep active while in 
the cold air and come in the warm house to rest. 

Any exercise is too violent which leaves the body " all 
tired out." It not only makes one unfit to do work of 
any kind, but also is likely to be injurious to the ner- 
vous system. Healthful exercise brings a restful feel- 
ing and a desire to work, and insures refreshing sleep. 

When and how to exercise. One should not exercise 
vigorously either just before or just after a meal. We 
should take some kind of exercise each day. Walking 
to and from school is not enough, neither will it do to 
study all the school days, and then play all day Saturday. 

The ball, the hoop, and lawn-tennis are good for the 
summer days ; the sled, the skates, and snowballs make 
good sport for winter. It is true that any work which 
brings the muscles into play develops and strengthens 
them ; yet '' all work and no play makes Jack a dull 
bov." 



56 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Muscles must rest. The muscles need rest, and 
nearly all of them get complete rest when we sleep. 
But the heart, which is a great hollow muscle, keeps 
beating away at night as well as during the day. Yet 
we shall learn that even it has its time of rest, for there 
is a moment of complete rest between its beats. 

General Rule. If exercise be taken for the health, it 
must be remembered tliat in order to be most beneficial, 
the mind must be actively interested in what is being 
done. 

ALCOHOL AND MUSCLE. 

Men have devoted a great deal of time to find out 
just what effect alcohol has on the muscles of the body. 
They know that when we are hungry and the body is 
weak, if we take good, nourishing food, we feel strong 
again. They know, too, that we cannot at once make 
ourselves strong by eating a great deal. 

Let us think of a man who is hard at work in a shop, 
using his muscles many hours each day. He eats three 
hearty meals a day, and feels well and strong. Now sup- 
pose he wants to work twice as hard one afternoon as 
he usually does. Do you think he could do it more easily 
if he should eat two big dinners ? Most certainly not. 

But when men began to use alcohol, they said : " Here 
is something that will enable us to w^ork twice as hard 
as usual, and will not let us get tired." 

Is this true ? Does alcohol actually make one stronger? 
Does it enable one to do more work, and not suffer from 
it in any way ? Let us wait a moment before we answer. 



EXERCISE. 57 

Have you ever been very sick ? If so, when you were 
getting better, and were once more walking about, have 
you not felt as well and strong as ever ? Yet when 
you attempted to lift anything, or to run, you found 
then that your feelings were no safe guide. You were 
weak, and could not do what you expected. 

Now, our workman in the shop tries a glass of some- 
thing that contains alcohol, as beer, or whiskey, or 
brandy, and he says that it makes him feci so much 
stronger. The real question is this : Is he any stronger ? 
Are his feelings a true test ? 

If alcohol will make a man stronger, and do him no 
particular harm, then we must all vote it a good thing ; 
but as a result of the most thorough experiments on the 
lower animals, even on animals as small as the frog, and 
on the higher animals, even on man himself, it is proved 
beyond a doubt that both small and large doses of al- 
cohol reduce the power of the muscles. We mean by this 
that if the system be under the influence of alcohol, the 
muscles will not contract as much as they should. 

Our workman, then, was not made stronger by his 
glass of liquor, he was not kept even as strong. He 
was actually made weaker. He felt as though he could 
do more Avork : the truth is, he could not do as much 
work as he could have done without the liquor. The 
workman made the mistake of supposing that mental 
excitement is increased strength. 

It is a well-proved fact to-day that alcohol weakens 
the muscles. The manner of walking, the bent form, 
the clumsy fingers, and the thick tongue of the man 



58 A HEALTHY BODY. 

under its influence, all show that his muscles have 
nearly lost their strength, and that only a little more 
would be required to make them so weak that they 
would be unable to do their work, and his body would 
become completely helpless. Everybody says that a man 
may take enough strong drink to weaken his muscles and 
render him unable to walk. The scientific student goes 
further, and says that even one glass weakens the mus- 
cular power. 

It is said that some forms of drink, as beer and ale, 
make the muscles larger. They certainly do tend to 
make some persons fleshy. But to grow fat is very 
different from growing strong. To load the body with 
a great quantity of fat is positively injurious. Beer and 
ale tend to make an excess of fat ; this hinders the 
proper action of the muscles, and may seriously interfere 
with the action of many of the organs of the body. 

A fatty heart is often the cause of death among beer- 
drinkers. The fat accumulates to such an extent in 
the muscle of the heart that it cannot act, and death 
follows. 

As a rule, very fleshy people are neither as strong nor 
as healthy as those who have much less fat and more 
hard muscle. 

Tea and Coffee. Neither tea nor coffee increases the 
strength in any way. 

Tobacco. Tobacco never gives strength to the muscles, 
while it may affect some muscles, as the heart, in a very 
serious way. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 59 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

1. A uiiiscle, with its tendon, may be procured at the 
market. The examination of the leg of a fowl will show 
how the muscle ends in a fine cord, or tendon. Let the 
pupil see that the tendon is harder than the muscle ; it 
is made of hard connective tissue, and cannot contract like 
muscle. 

2. The voluntary muscles are represented by the ordi- 
nary lean meat of the market. Their action is shown by 
various movements. Feel the front of the arm while the 
hand is raised. In a few cases muscle is not attached to 
bone. To illustrate this, have the letter U pronounced. A 
voluntary muscle which forms the fleshy part of the lips 
contracts. Follow this with the letter Y, and the muscle 
will relax. 

3. The heart is the best illustration of an involuntary 
muscle. 

4. Boiled corned beef shows the muscle falling apart 
into small bundles. These may be still further torn apart. 
Call attention to the fact that the microscope would show 
the smallest of these little fibres to be made of still smaller 
fibres. 

5. Interesting experiments may be made to show that 
expression is caused largely b}^ the contraction of muscles. 
Contract the muscles of the forehead, as in scowling, to 
show displeasure. Contract the muscles that draw the 
corners of the mouth up, and there is an expression of 
pleasure ; while the opposite effect is produced by drawing 
the corners down. 



60 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER X. 

OUR FOODS. 

The Body is wearing out. As the movements of ma- 
chinery tend to wear it out, so every movement of tlie 
body causes some tissue to waste away. Our bodies are 
constantly wearing out. We must, therefore, make a 
careful study to find out what we should eat, in order 
to furnish new material to take the place of that which 
is worn out ; and one of the most important subjects 
for our consideration is what foods will best keep us 
in health, and what means we should use to restore us 
to health when we are sick. 

Varieties of Food. Some animals appear to be almost 
constantly taking small quantities of food. The com- 
mon canary-bird keeps very busy cracking seeds and 
swallowing the kernels. There are others that will eat 
enormous quantities of food at one time, and afterwards 
lie quiet and perhaps sleep for days. Still others, as 
the dog, do not chew their food ; they tear it just 
enough to enable them to swallow it, and that is all. 
The cow chews her food only a little at first. She 
gathers the grass very fast, and swallows it as quickly 
as she can. Then when she is resting her body, she 



OUR FOODS. 61 

briim'S the food back to her mouth and more thoroimhlv 
chews it. Some animals can live on one kind of food. 
The horse will live on fresh or dried grass, and he 
never eats meat of any kind. The squirrel likes the 
kernels of nuts, and does not care for grass. But 
man makes use of the products of the vegetable and 
animal kingdoms, and even of the mineral kingdom. 

Tastes differ. If we travel through various countries 
we find that the people of one land eat substances which 
are declared by the people of another to be very repulsive. 
There are persons in the world who eat moths and bees, 
rats and mice. The savage man, as the Indian, eats 
nearly all his food in its natural state ; he grinds the 
grain into a coarse powder, mixes a little water with it, 
and cooks it over the fire. The civilized man, however, 
first takes the grain to the mill, and there not only gets 
it ground very fine, but also has certain objectionable 
matters removed. 

FOODS FROM THE MINERAL KINGDOM. 

The two principal articles we use from this kingdom 
are w^ater and salt. 

Salt. Salt is found in every tissue in the body except 
the enamel of tlie teeth. As it is so generally distributed 
throughout the body, we must take it with our food, or 
suffer greatly. Salt is naturally present in nearly all 
the foods we use, but only in quantities so small that 



62 A HEALTHY BODY. 

there is not enough furnished in this way to meet the 
demands of the system ; therefore we add it to our food. 

Its Uses. Salt supplies a demand of the body, and 
gives flavor to the food, thus making ifc more pleasant 
to us ; it also causes the digestive juices to flow more 
freely, and stimulates our appetite. 

It is Necessary. Experiments have been made on ani- 
mals to ascertain the effect of depriving them of salt. 
It was found that their hides became rough, their eyes 
grew dull, they were less active, and at last they lost 
their health and streno-th. 



^ir:>^ 



A Natural Demand for it. The farmer knows how 
quickly his sheep will come at his call if they have 
learned that by so doing they can get some of this ne- 
cessary food. Cattle will eat the coarsest kind of fod- 
der if only they taste the salt that has been sprinkled 
over it. This shows the natural demand of the system 
for this mineral substance. In some parts of the world 
salt is very valuable. Fifty years ago it was expensive 
even in our own country. Sometimes it would take a 
whole load of wheat to purchase a single barrel of it. 
At the present time it is very cheap and plentiful. 
In western New York a dollar will buy all the coarse 
salt that a horse can draw away. 

Water. Nearly three fourths of the weight of the 
body is composed of water. If a person weighs 120 



OUR FOODS. 63 

pounds, it is estimated that 85 pounds will be water. 
This fact alone is suFticient to show how important it is 
that we should have the purest water to use. 

A Natural Demand for it. The craving for water is 
greater than for food, and those who have been de- 
prived of it describe their sufferings as terrible. A 
person will die sooner if deprived of water than if 
deprived of food. 

Large Quantities taken. We little suspect how much 
Avater we take into the body each day. Every kind of 
food we use contains it. When we eat beef we take 
over one half its weight in water. Potatoes, that 
look so dry and mealy, consist of three fourths 
water ; even dry sugar contains a large amount of it, 
while milk consists of nearly nine tenths water. So 
if we do not purposely drink water, we still use a 
great deal of it. A healthy man takes with his food 
and as drink on an average about two quarts of 
water each day, and it is necessary that it be taken 
in these large quantities ; for without it the blood 
and the secretions could not properly perform their 
Avork, and even the muscles and tendons would be 
made to suffer. 

Other Substances with Water. The water we use for 
drinking always contains some mineral matter and 
gases, and occasionally some vegetable matter. When 
the mineral matter, as lime, is not in excess, it is useful to 



64 A HEALTHY BODY. 

the system. As lime is so important in the formation 
of the teeth and bone, water that has a small amount 
of lime in it must be regarded as beneficial, especially 
when the tissues are developing during early life. 
When water is carried through lead pipes it may dis- 
solve enough of the lead to act as a poison when taken 
into the body. We should consequently never drink 
water that has stood in lead pipes. If such pipes are 
used, the water should be allowed to run through them 
constantly. In this way the danger is greatly reduced. 

A Cause of Sickness. Impure drinking-water is the 
cause of an immense amount of sickness, and thousands 
of deaths occur each year as a result of its use. The 
fact that water looks clear and has no odor gives no 
reason for supposing that it may not have something- 
dissolved in it that will produce some terrible disease. 
Filth is the cause of many diseases, and of typhoid 
fever in particular. If we wish to escape this disease, 
we must be sure that our drinking water is free from 
filth of every kind. 

Where is the Well ? There is a very general idea that 
it is only necessary to dig a hole anywhere in the 
ground in order to get good drinking water. This is a 
great mistake. The well should never be in the house, 
it should not be near the barn, nor should it be near 
a place where there is any refuse matter. We must 
not forget that the germs of disease may be carried 
through the soil for a considerable distance, and in 



OUR FOODS. 65 

this manner reach a well that is many feet away, espe- 
cially if the soil is sandy, or slopes towards that well. 
A well should be at least fifty feet from any place 
whence lilth might get into it. 

To purify Water. In cities, where good water is not 
easily obtained, it is a wise plan to boil the water 
before it is used for drinking. After boiling, it can 
be set aside to cool in the winter, and placed in the 
refrigerator in the summer. Ice should not be put in- 
to it, but around it. 

Too much Water injurious. It is not wise to drink too 
much water with our meals, as it dilutes the digestive 
juices, and is a frequent cause of stomach troubles. It 
is certainly a very bad practice to chill the stomach by 
putting ice-cold water into it. 

FOODS FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 

At the head of the list of these foods, for ease of 
digestion and for concentrated nourishment, we must 
place eggs. When soft boiled in the shell, or when 
dropped into boiling water, they are acceptable to the 
most delicate stomach, and contain the most nourishing 
materials. Oysters also are very nourishing, and they 
are easily digested, especially when eaten raw. 

Beef is undoubtedly the best meat for general use. 
Tender beef, properly cooked, is easily digested, and 
agrees with most persons. Mutton is nearly as good as 

5. 



66 A HEALTHY BODY. 

beef ; but there are many persons with whom it does not 
agree, or to whom its flavor is not agreeable. Veal is 
neither as easily digested nor as nourishing as either 
mutton or beef. Lamb is more easily digested than 
veal, but not so nourishing as mutton. Pork is used 
by a great many persons, and to those who have strong 
digestive powers it appears to do no harm. It is, how- 
ever, very difficult to digest, and should never be eaten 
by those whose stomachs are weak. Lobsters and crabs 
are exceedingly difficult to digest, and should be avoided 
by invalids. 

FOODS PROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

The principal grains used as foods are wheat, corn, 
oats, and rice, all of which contain a large quantity of 
starch. These foods are very important to mankind, 
millions of human beings eating scarcely anything else. 

While starch is the principal substance in these grains, 
yet mineral matter, oil, and fat are present also. Wheat 
stands at the head as the most useful of the grains. 
Oatmeal contains starch and a good supply of mineral 
matter ; it is a wholesome food, easily digested, and to 
most persons agreeable. The potato is the most gener- 
ally used vegetable ; it is composed almost entirely of 
starch and water. 

Peas and beans are very nourishing, and are so val- 
uable as foods that they would be used much more than 
they are, were it not for the fact that they consist of 
so solid matter that they are not easily digested. 



OUR FOODS. 67 

Turnips, cabbages, parsnips, onions, etc., arc added to 
our list of foods, that we may have a suitable variety ; 
but they are not very nutritious, nor are they easily 
digested. 

Apples, peaches, and other fruits are useful to us in 
many ways. The acids they contain stimulate the appe- 
tite and excite the flow of the gastric juice, while the 
water they contain serves to quench the thirst ; but they 
are not very nourishing. If uncooked, they are most 
wholesome eaten before meals and in the early part 
of the day ; but if cooked they can be eaten with any 
meal. Dried fruits and nuts are not easily digested, 
and should be eaten sparingly. 

OTHER FOODS. 

Sugar. Sugar forms an important article of our diet, 
and a proper amount of it should be used. It makes 
certain articles of food more pleasant to the taste, but 
when eaten in too large quantities it is likely to cause 
trouble with the stomach, and thus impair the health. 
If we desire to satisfy our natural appetite for sweet 
things, it is better to use home-made candies than the 
impure and highly colored candies from the stores. 

Milk. Milk must be regarded as a perfect food ; no 
ideal food could surpass it. It contains in a digestible 
form all the elements most necessary for the support of 
the body. Many forms of stomach disease are cured by 
a diet of milk alone, and it is given by physicians in 



68 A HEALTHY BODY. 

fevers and other diseases. Great care should be taken 
to keep milk sweet and pure, as it will readily absorb 
gases, — a fact easily proved by placing a bunch of 
onions near a dish of milk in a closed box. The 
milk will soon b.e tainted by the gas from the onions, 
and will show it in taste and odor. Milk should be 
kept in a clean room, where the air is always pure and 
sweet. 

If the value of milk as a food were better understood 
it would be much more largely used. For adults it 
may be used as a drink with the ordinary meals. Dur- 
ing the cold weather of winter it may be taken warm 
with the breakfast, and cool with the other meals. 
Even during the heat of summer it should not be taken 
into the stomach ice cold. Cool milk may be used, but 
large quantities of iced milk are certainly injurious, 
especially when taken with meals. 

Cream and Butter. Butter is a most important article 
of diet. It is valuable because it supplies the body with 
needed fatty material, and also because it gives flavor 
to other foods, thus making them the more readily 
eaten and digested. It is composed principally of the 
fat of milk. Under the microscope milk is found to 
consist of a large number of minute oil-drops floating 
in water. We know that oil is lighter than water, so 
that when the two are shaken together and then al- 
lowed to stand, the oil will rise to the top. So when 
milk is allowed to stand, the oil will rise to the surface. 
This oil is called cream. Churning cream is simply 



OUR FOODS. 69 

beating these minute oil-drops, or the fat of milk, into 
one solid mass. 

Butter-milk. Butter-milk is the milk that remains 
after the butter is taken from the cream by churning. 
It is a wholesome, cooling drink in the hot summer-time, 
containing some of the nourishing properties of milk. 

Skim-milk, After the cream is removed from the milk 
there is left the skim-milk. This contains a small 
amount of fat and some of the mineral matter found in 
milk. It is more nutritious than butter-milk. 

Cheese. Cheese is the curd of milk pressed and par- 
tially dried. It is used principally as a side-dish to 
promote the appetite or to give a variety to our table 
supply. It should never be used in large quantities, for 
it is classed with the foods most difficult of digestion. 
New cheese is more easily digested than old. Old skim- 
milk cheese is one of the hardest things to digest. 

Whey is the thin or watery part of milk that remains 
after the cream and curd have been removed. It has 
but little value as a food. 



70 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER XL 
COOKING. 

Raw Meats. Raw meat is used by a large number of 
people. A fondness for it is said to be readily acquired. 
Raw meats are not so easily digested as cooked meats. 
They are generally eaten after being smoked or dried. 

Cooking is necessary. It is said that it is impossible to 
find a race of men so uncivilized that they do not cook 
a part of their food. We are educated to believe that 
it is absolutely necessary to cook some kinds of food. 
Cooking is necessary because it brings out flavors that 
are agreeable, and thus increases the appetite and stim- 
ulates digestion. It either softens the article, or aids 
in dividing it into small particles, and thus promotes 
digestion. Improper cooking, however, will make the 
purest and best articles of food harmful to us. 

Broiling. A tender piece of beefsteak, carefully broiled, 
contains great nutritive properties and is easily digested. 
Broiling is the best way to cook meats ; next to this 
roasting, and then boiling. 



COOKING. 71 

Boiling. In cooking meats wc should remember that 
tlie natural juices should be retained in them as much 
as is possible. This can be done by makiug the meat 
very hot at once, in order that it may be hardened on 
the outside, thus forming a crust through which the 
juices cannot escape. Therefore all meats that are to 
be boiled should be put in boiling water, and roasts 
should be placed in the hot oven. 

Frying. Frying makes meat hard, and difficult to 
digest. If frying is to be done at all, the fat should 
be boiling hot before the food is put into it. Then 
an outer crust is formed at once, and the oil does not 
pass into the meat. 

Making Soups. When it is desired to make soups or 
beef-tea,, for the purpose of using the juices and not the 
meat, the meat should be cut in pieces and placed in 
cold water, and the water allowed gradually to come to 
a high temperature. Mutton-broth prepared in this way 
is very nutritious and easily digested. 

Eggs. Eggs are cooked in many ways. For the 
most delicate stomach there can be nothing better than 
a fresh egg broken into boiling water and cooked just 
enough to make the albumen, or white, solid. A soft- 
boiled egg is also very nourishing and easily digested. 
Hard-boiled eggs should be eaten only by those who 
have strong powers of digestion. 

Vegetables. Vegetables should be thoroughly cooked. 
As a rule, they are not cooked enough. The practice of 



72 A HEALTHY BODY. 

frying them does not give a wholesome food. Some 
vegetables, as lettuce and radishes, are eaten without 
cooking. If taken in moderate quantity, they serve as 
a relish, and stimulate the appetite. 

The Starchy Foods. The various starchy foods, as corn- 
starch, rice, and oatmeal, should be boiled a long time, 
that they may be properly acted upon by the digestive 
juices. 

New Bread. Newly baked bread is difficult to digest, 
because it is likely to form a soft, pasty mass in the 
mouth, so that when it reaches the stomach it is a solid 
lump into which the digestive juices cannot easily enter. 
Light, sweet bread is always acceptable to the taste, and 
is highly nutritious. 

Pies and Cakes. Pies and rich cakes are not wholesome 
foods for delicate stomachs, and should be used only in 
moderate quantities by any one. The pie-crust contains 
too much fat, as lard or butter, and the cakes have too 
much sugar and butter in them to make proper foods. 
They should never be taken in large quantities. 

Cooking is an Art. Cooking is a great art, and full of 
hidden secrets. It is founded upon laws of chemistry 
and physiology, and a knowledge of these sciences is 
necessary to understand fully its mysteries. 

What Food shall we eat ? No rule can be given either 
for the kind or the quantity of food we should eat. We 



COOKING. 73 

must learn what are wholesome foods, and how they can 
be spoiled by improper cooking ; then each one must de- 
cide for himself what he will eat. It can be given as a 
rule that a general mixed diet is the best. 

A Cause of Sickness. Doubtless one of the great causes 
of sickness is due to eating too much and eating things 
that are harmful. Yet even this will depend upon the 
habits of life. An Esquimau can eat from twelve to 
fifteen pounds of meat a day, besides a large quantity of 
fat. An Arctic explorer says he saw an Esquimau eat 
thirty-five pounds of meat and several tallow candles 
in the course of a single day. Some persons require but 
a small amount of food to keep them alive and in good 
health, and others have lived a number of days with- 
out food. 

Plenty of Food for Children. Children should have plenty 
of good food. They take much exercise, and their bodies 
are growing rapidly. For these reasons Nature gives 
them a strong appetite, and she expects us to satisfy it 
with a good supply of wholesome food. 

IS ALCOHOL A FOOD? 

Is alcohol a food ? Does it nourish the body in any 
way ? Does it build up the body ? Does it satisfy our 
hunger ? Does it quench our thirst ? 

If alcohol is an important food ; if it strengthens the 
laboring man ; if it aids the student in his work ; if it 



74 A HEALTHY BODY. 

answers a demand of the system, — then we shall have 
to declare it is a good thing. 

But we know that it will not do this. There is no 
water in it to supply this much-needed fluid to our 
bodies. On the contrary, it has the power to take 
water from other things ; therefore when in the body 
it is capable of taking water from parts where it is 
most needed. It has no mineral product, as lime or 
salt, that might be of use to us. It has nothing in it, 
like the meats of the animal kingdom, which can be 
readily changed into the flesh of our bodies. There 
is nothing in it like the products of the vegetable king- 
dom, as starch or sugar, which are so highly prized as 
valuable parts of our food. We can find nothing about 
it that gives us any idea that it is a food. 

" But," it is said, " we have to eat to keep the body 
warm ; and alcohol raises the temperature of the body, 
and thus acts as a food." This is a great mistake. 

We are asked : " Is it not true that a glass of 
whiskey or brandy will enable us to endure the cold 
weather of winter much better ? '' This we shall answer 
more completely when we come to study the tempera- 
ture of the body ; but in the mean time we shall quote 
from one of the most prominent medical writers of the 
day : ''In nearly all the cases of death caused by expos- 
ure to cold that I have known or heard of, it was found 
that the persons so dying had taken some alcoholic 
drinks, not always in large quantities, before going out 
into the cold. So well is this known by people in the 
northwest of America and in Canada that they will 



COOKING. 75 

seldom take a glass of spirits when they are likely to be 
exposed to extreme cold." 

We must remember that alcohol is the active principle 
in all si)irituous drinks. Men drink beer and ale and 
wine for the effects of the alcohol they contain. There 
is one glass of alcohol in about every twenty glasses of 
beer. Alcohol is not in any sense a food. 

Is there no nourishment in beer ? One of the great- 
est living authorities on foods says : " There is more 
nourishment in the flour that can be put on the 
point of a table-knife than in eight quarts of the best 
beer." 

'' Then," it is asked, " as beer increases the fat of 
the body, is it not, therefore, a valuable food ? " 

The answer to this question explains the terrible 
effects of alcohol on many of the organs and tissues of 
the body, and gives the cause of a number of diseases. 
The natural conclusion would be that if beer makes one 
fleshy, it must be a valuable food. But a more careful 
study will show this conclusion to be a wrong one. At 
the same time that the tissues beneath the skin are 
becoming changed into fat, pushing the skin out and 
making all the wrinkles disappear and the face look plump 
and round, just the same thing is going on in the deeper 
and more important tissues. The strong, hard muscles 
are changing into fat ; they are growing weak and soft 
and flabby. The liver is changing into a mass of fat, 
and even the heart is becoming fatty and weak. The 
more important tissues and organs in the body lose their 
proper structure and become more or less changed into 



76 A HEALTHY BODY. 

fat. Of course this often causes the most serious trouble, 
and not infrequently is the cause of death itself. 

The fleshy body caused by the continued use of large 
quantities of beer is a diseased body. Strong muscles, a 
healthy heart, and a sound liver are not found in such 
a body. 



DIGESTION. 77 



CHAPTER XII. 

DIGESTION. 

We eat and drink because we are hungry and thirsty ; 
and if our bodies are in a healthy condition, hunger and 
thirst may be taken as safe guides. 

Hunger. The sensation of hunger is generally said to 
be in the stomach ; but it is not confined to any place : 
it is a call of the whole system for food. 

Thirst. Our throats seem to tell us when we are 
thirsty; but this is a call of the whole system for liquids, 
and is not confined to any one part. 

Digestion. Digestion is the process of preparing the 
food that has been taken into the stomach in order that 
it may be absorbed. The food we take must be dissolved 
and changed before it can be absorbed, or taken up, by 
the vessels and carried by them to all parts of the body. 

Why is Food necessary? Our bodies are constantly 
wearing out, and for this reason alone we must perish if 
we do not furnish a fresh supply of food. Then, too, in 
growing persons we ought not only to furnish new ma- 



78 A HEALTHY BODY. 

terial to take the place of the old, but also enough more 
to make new tissues, so that the body may properly 
hicrease in size. 

What becomes of the Old Material? A healthy body 
must not only furnish new material, but also get rid 
of the old, worn-out material. If we neglect to sup- 
ply food, we shall soon starve ; while if our bodies 
fail to remove the old, worn-out material, death will 
speedily follow : for this old material acts as a poison 
to the whole system. The skin, lungs, kidneys, and 
other organs all aid in carrying off this poisonous 
substance. 

The Alimentary Canal. Digestion is carried on in the 
alimentary canal. This is about thirty feet in length in 
the adult. There is an enlargement in its upper part, 
called the stomach. Near the alimentary canal there 
are some glands, called the liver and the pancreas. 
Small canals, or ducts, lead from these to the inside of 
the canal. The secretions, or juices, from these glands 
are poured into the canal, in order that they may there 
mix with the food and make certain changes in it so 
that it can be absorbed. 

Mastication. The first act of digestion is called masti- 
cation, or chewing. As soon as Nature thinks it is time 
for us to take solid food, she furnishes us with teeth to 
chew it. A child has but twenty teeth, — ten in each jaw. 
The first teeth appear about the sixth or seventh month, 



DIGESTION. 



79 



and the last about the end of the second year. These 
teeth do not stay long, for the second set begin to 
appear about the fifth or sixth year. These come one 
by one until the child is twelve or thirteen years of 
age, when all will be present, except the wisdom teeth. 
Tliese usually do not appear until the person is twenty 
or twenty-five years of age. In Fig. 20 the position of 
some of the second teeth is shown. They are formed 
in the jaw just beneath the others, and gradually rise 
up to take their places. 




Fig. 20. 

Importance of the Teeth. The teeth are very necessary 
to digestion. They break up the food into fine particles 
and mix it with the saliva. They are very important 
in another way : they add very much to the personal 
appearance of any one, especially when they are regular 
and wiiite. A set of filthy and decayed teeth is very 
repulsive. 



Care of the Teeth. We must not neglect our teeth in 
any way if we wish to preserve them and escape the 
pains of toothache. The teeth should not be picked with 
a pin or with any hard substance. Nuts should never 



80 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



be cracked between them ; they should be thoroughly 
cleaned at least once each day. It would be better to 
clean them after each meal and at bedtime. Use a 
small, soft brush at least once each day, and as soon as 
a cavity appears, consult a dentist and have it filled; 

The Teeth vary in Shape. Our teeth are of various 
shapes, because they have different kinds of work to 
perform. The front ones are sharp, for cutting, hence 
called incisors ; while the back ones are large and un- 
even for grinding, and these are called molars. 




Fig. 21. The teeth of an adult. (1) a canine, or eye-tooth ; (2) an incisor, 
or cutting tooth ; (3) two molars, or grinding teeth, of the lower jaw ; (4) two 
molars, of the upper jaw. 

The Inside of a Tooth. By breaking open any tooth a 
cavity will be found within it. (Fig. 22.) In the living 
body this cavity is filled with nerves and blood-vessels. 
Pig. 23 shows that each tooth has its own blood-vessel 
and nerve. It is when these are diseased that a tooth 
gives us intense suffering. 



The Saliva. There is a constant flow of a liquid into 
the mouth. It is called the saliva. While the jaws 



DIGESTION. 



81 



move and the teeth are doing their work, the fiow is 
greatly inereased. The saliva comes from some glands 
near the tongue, 
and also from two 
large glands, one 
just in front of 
each ear. In 
health we are not 
conscious of their 
whereabouts; but 
when they become 
inflamed we know 
all about it. The 
mumps are an in- 
flammation of the 
large glands. 





Fig. 22. Three teeth broken open to show the 
cavity on the inside. Surrounding the top of each 
tooth is the enamel. The two teeth to the left are 
but little larger than natural ; the one to the right 
is more highly magnified. 



Slow and Thorough Mastication. One of the most 
frequent causes of trouble with the stomach is too 
rapid eating. The solid foods should be chewed very 
finely, and all food well mixed with the saliva. 



The Object of Mastication. The saliva has the power 
of changing the starch of our food into sugar. As all 
starch must be thus changed before it can be taken up 
by the blood-vessels, it follows that the action of this 
fluid is important. However, not all the starch is con- 
verted into sugar while it is in the mouth. The food is 
in the mouth such a short time that only a part of it is 
affected. The rest is changed at a later period farther 



82 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



down the alimentary canal. The principal object of 
mastication is to finely divide the solid foods and to 
moisten them for swallowino\ 

Too much Fluid is injurious. It is a harmful prac- 
tice to wash down the food with large quantities of 
water or tea or liquid of any kind. The saliva will fur- 
nish moisture enough as a rule ; for there are from one 
to three pints of it poured into the mouth of an adult 




Fig. 23. A side view of the lower jaw with the outer walls of bone removed, 
showing the teeth in proper place. (1) the two incisors ; (2) the canine ; (3) 
the tAvo bicuspids ; (4) the three lower molars (the last molar is sometimes 
called the wisdom tooth) ; (5) a blood-vessel ; (6) a nerve. 



each day. There is no harm in using a moderate 
amount of drinl^ with our meals, if it be of the right 
temperature. Iced drinks should not be used under 
any circumstances, neither are very hot drinks much 



DIGESTION. 83 

better. A glass of milk or a single glass of water 
should be sufficient. 

Swallowing. By the act of swallowing, the soft mass 
is carried from the mouth down the oesophagus, or gul- 
let, into the stomach. Here very important changes 
take place. 



84 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH. 



The Stomach. The stomach of an adult is nearly a foot 
in length, and three or four inches in diameter. It has 
a firm outer wall of involuntary muscle, while the in- 
side consists of a delicate membrane, called the mucous 
membrane. 

Fig. 24 shows this membrane arranged in folds, or 
wrinkles. When the stomach is well filled, these folds 

spread out and 
disappear. 

Glands of the 
Stomach. This 
membrane has 
glands in it so 
very minute 
that they cannot 
be seen without 
a microscope. 

Fig. 25 shows 
how a vertical 
section of this membrane looks when examined with a 
small magnifying-glass. The inside of the stomach is at 




Fig. 24. View of the inside of the stomach. The front 
walls have been cut away. 



DIGESTION IN THE S'l'OxMACH. 



85 




the top of tlie figure, and 
at tlic bottom is the wall 
of muscle. Nine of these 
little glands are seen all 
opening at the top, or on 
the inside of the stom- 
ach. Fig. 26 is the sec- 
ond gland from the right, 
more highly magnified. 
Fig. 27 is the third gland 
from the left, as seen under a more powerful microscope. 



'J 



Fig. 25. A cross-section of a small por- 
tion of the walls of the stomach, slightly 
magnified, showing the glands. 





Fig. 26. One of the glands of the stom- 
ach, as seen with a microscope. 



Fig. 27. A gland of the 
stomach, highly magnified. 



86 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Gastric Juice. The round bodies, or cells, seen 
in these glands make a juice, called the gastric juice. 
Just as soon as food reaches the stomach these cells 
begin to pour out this juice, which is to change much 
of the food. At the same time the muscles on the 
outside of the stomach begin to contract, mixing the 
food thoroughly with the juice. 

The gastric juice changes certain of our foods so that 
they can be taken up by minute vessels and carried to 
all parts of the body. Not all the foods we take are di- 
gested in the stomach by this juice ; some of them pass 
out of the stomach as they entered it, and are digested 
in the canal near it. The oily or fatty foods, and all the 
starchy foods that are not changed in the mouth, are di- 
gested after they have left the stomach ; but such foods as 
the lean meats and eggs (albuminous foods) are digested 
in the stomach. When the action of the gastric juice is 
completed there remains a grayish fluid, called chyme. 

Pepsin. The fact that solid meats and some other 
foods can be digested in the stomach is largely due to 
the presence of a substance in the gastric juice known 
as pepsin. 

The Time required for Digestion. A few hours after 
food has been taken, the stomach is again empty. The 
time required for the stomach to complete its work de- 
pends upon the kind and the amount of food, the liquids 
that are taken during the meal, the health of the person, 
and other conditions. 

The following table shows that digestion is completed 
in from one to five hours : — 



DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH. 



87 



Easy of Digestion. 



Rice, boiled . 
Apples, sweet, raw 
Milk .... 
Cabbage, raw . 
Oysters, raw 
Potatoes, baked 
Chicken, boiled 
Eggs, soft boiled 
Custard, baked 
Beef, broiled 



h. 111. 
1.00 
1.30 
2.00 
2.00 
2.30 
2.30 
2.45 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 



MoKK Difficult. h. m. 

Potatoes, boiled . . . 3.30 

Oysters, fried .... 3.30 

Eggs, hard boiled . . . 3.30 

Pork, broiled .... 3.30 

Beef, fried 4.00 

Cheese 4.00 

Cabbage, boiled . . . 4.30 

Duck, wild, roasted . . 4.30 

Pork, fried 4.30 

Pork, roasted . . . . 5.15 



The time required 
for foods to digest 
was ascertained by a 
Dr. Beaumont, who 
experimented upon 
one of his patients. 
This patient, Alexis 
St. Martin, had an 
opening from the sur- 
face of the body di- 
rectly into the stom- 
ach, as a result of 
a gun-shot wound. 
Food could be intro- 
duced through this 
opening into the 
stomach, and the 
whole process of di- 
gestion could thus be 
carefully studied. 




Fig. 28. (1) The oesophagus ; (2) the stomach ; 
(3) the pylorus ; (4) the gall-bladder ; (5) the 
duct carrying bile to the intestine ; (6) the 
duct from the pancreas ; (7) the small intes- 
tine ; (8) the large intestine. 



88 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Pylorus. The name of the end of the stomach 
through which the food will pass out is the pylorus. 
The food will not pass through this until the gastric 
juice has had time to act upon it. Then the pylorus will 
open, and by the contraction of the walls of the stomach 
the food is pushed through it into the upper part of the 
intestines. 

Fig. 28 shows the general arrangement of the alimen- 
tary canal. Just below the stomach are the small 
canals, or ducts, coming from the pancreas and the 
liver. A portion of the intestine where these ducts 
enter it is shown in Pig. 30. 

HYGIENE OF THE STOMACH. 

Liquids at Meal-time. If we should hastily drink a 
glass of iced water during a meal, the cold might be suf- 
ficient to stop the action of the glands of the stomach, 
and thus check the forming of the gastric juice. The 
glands would not begin their work again until they 
had recovered from the shock of the cold. Thus di- 
gestion would be prolonged, and some form of stomach 
trouble would be likely to follow. Too much liquid of 
any kind is harmful, because it dilutes the gastric juice, 
and therefore weakens it. 

Eat slowly. The gastric juice will not dissolve, or 
digest, the solid foods in proper time if the pieces are 
too large when swallowed. We should eat slowly, not 
only because it is good manners, but also because it 
gives time for the gastric juice to be formed, and to be 
thoroughly mixed with the food as it is swallowed. 



DIGESTION IN THE INTESTINE. 89 



CHAPTER XIV. 

DIGESTION IN THE INTESTINE. 

The process of digestion is not completed in the 
stomach. After the food, or chyme, has passed into 
the alimentary canal it undergoes a final change. 

Within a few inches of the stomach there are poured 
into the alimentary canal the juices secreted by the liver 
and the pancreas. These juices change the chyme into 
a milky fluid called chyle. Fig. 28 indicates the situa- 
tion of the ducts that convey these juices, and Fig. 30 
shows more clearly how they open into the canal. 

The Liver. The liver is a large organ principally in the 
right side of the body, although Fig. 29 shows that a 
portion of it extends to the left side. In the adult this 
organ weighs between three and four pounds. 

The Bile. The juice made by the liver is called bile. 
The liver is constantly secreting bile, although there are 
times when an increased quantity of it is poured into 
the intestines. The bile may pass directly from the liver 
into the intestines, or it may first pass into the gall- 
bladder, and from there into the intestines. The gall- 
bladder acts as a reservoir for the bile. Fig. 30 shows 
that the duct from the liver unites with the duct that 



90 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



comes from the pancreas, and that both terminate as one 

duct, at the point 10. 

The bile affects the lining membrane of the intestine 

in such a way that it 
aids in the absorption 
of the fats. About two 
and a half pints of bile 
are secreted each day. 
If the liver fails alto- 
gether to secrete this 
substance, sickness and 
death follow. If enough 
is not secreted, then the 
whole body is affected, 
and sickness follows, 
which in time may alone 
be sufficient to cause 
death. When the pas- 
sage from the liver to 
the intestine is stopped 
up in any way, then the 
bile is taken up by the 
blood-vessels and car- 
ried to all parts of the 
body, making the skin 
yellow. The person thus 
affected becomes very 
ill, and we say that he 
is jaundiced. 




Fig. 29. A diagram illustrating the posi- 
tion of the principal organs of the trunk: 
(1) is the diaphragm, which divides the 
trunk into two large cavities, — the tho- 
racic cavity, above, and the abdominal 
cavity, below ; (2) the lungs ; (3) the 
heart; (4) position of the trachea; (5) the 
median line of the body ; (6) a dotted 
line, showing the lower border of the 
ribs; (7) the liver; (8) the stomach; 
(9) the si^leen ; [consult fig. 30 for the 
situation of the pancreas ;] (k) the kid- 
neys ; (i) the position of the intestines 
[consult fig. 28]. 



DIGESTION I.N TllK IM Ks IINK. 



91 




Fig. 30. A diagram illnstrating the position of the pancreas and its relation 
to surrounding parts: (1) the stomach; (2) the pylorus; (3) the small intes- 
tine; (4) the spleen ; (5) the pancreas; (6) the duct of the pancreas ; (7) the 
bile-duct from the liver; (8) the bile-duct from the gall-bladder ; (9) the 
common bile-duct, formed by a union of the two bile-ducts. The common 
bile-duct unites with the pancreatic duct, and the one duct thus formed 
opens into the small intestine at 10. 



92 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Liver-Sugar. We remember that all starchy foods 
are changed into sugar before they are absorbed ; there- 
fore all the starchy foods and all the sugar we eat are 
absorbed into the body as so much sugar. This sugar is 
carried directly to the liver. The liver makes certain 
changes in it, and then stores it up in its cells until 
some time between meals, when it will give it out again 
to the body. Thus the liver acts as a great storehouse. 
It takes some of the digested food when there is plenty 
of it, and stores it up until such time as the body needs 
it, and then gives it out as so much sugar. This is 
called liver-sugar. 

The Pancreas. Just below and under the stomach is 
the pancreas. This is a slender organ, about six inches 
in length, which secretes a juice called the pancreatic 
juice. A duct carries this juice to the intestines. Fig. 
30 shows the general shape of this organ, and how 
its duct unites with the one from the liver. It illus- 
trates how the stomach covers a large part of the 
pancreas. The pancreas is drawn as though it could 
be seen through the stomach, in order that its position 
may be the better understood. To the right of the 
figure, and at the small end of the pancreas, is the 
spleen. The small end of the pancreas and the spleen 
are on the left side of the body. 

The pancreatic juice is very important in digestion, 
as it changes the starchy foods into sugar, and thus 
completes the work begun by the saliva. This juice 
alone will digest meats and all foods that the gastric 



DIGESTION m THE INTESTINE. 93 

juice can digest. But it does one thing that none of 
the other juices do, — it digests the fats, and makes 
them so that they can be easily absorbed. 

Glands of the Intestine. Tliere are glands in the 
walls of the small intestine that secrete a juice which 
aids in the digestion of foods, especially the starches 
and fats. 

How many Fluids? We have learned that there are 
five fluids used in digesting the food. First, the saliva ; 
second, the gastric juice ; third, the bile ; fourth, the 
pancreatic juice ; and fifth, the intestinal juice. 

The Quantity secreted. It is estimated that as many as 
twenty pounds of these juices are secreted every twenty- 
four hours. 



TO HAVE A GOOD DIGESTION. 

Eat slowly. 

Eat at regular hours. 

Eat fruit before meals. 

Chew the food thoroughly. 

Be cheerful at the table. 

Do not eat between meals. 

Never eat just before going to bed. 

Eat only a few kinds of food at a meal. 

Never eat after the appetite is satisfied. 

Do not wash down the food with too much drink. 



94 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Avoid iced water and iced drinks at meal-time. 

Avoid too severe exercise after a hearty meal. 

Do not study for an hour after a hearty meal. 

Avoid too much sugar or sweet food ; it is likely to 
ferment in the stomach. 

Be cheerful ; have a clear conscience ; take plenty of 
out-door exercise ; and you will lead a happy life, and 
have '' a healthy body." 



THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, ETC. 95 



CHAPTER XV. 

ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE 
DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

Effect on the Stomach of these Drugs. We do not intend 
to show the effects of pure alcohol on the stomach. 
Pure alcohol is not ordinarily used ; it would have the 
most serious effects at once, if taken undiluted. Alcohol 
is taken in wine, whiskey, beer, or other liquors, and it 
is the effects of these that we purpose to discuss. The 
strongest liquors, such as brandy, consist of one half 
alcohol, while the weaker liquors, such as beer, contain 
about two tablespoonfuls to a large tumblerful. When 
an alcoholic drink was given to Alexis St. Martin, it 
was noticed that the mucous membrane of his stomach 
suddenly became very red, — as we might expect the eye 
to become red if pepper were thrown into it. After using 
alcoholic beverages freely for some days, his stomach 
looked very red and inflamed, and the gastric juice was 
thick and unnatural in appearance. The very first effect 
of these beverages on the mucous membrane of the 
stomach is to cause an increased flow of blood to it. 
Now, a most important result follows this. The glands 
of the stomach secrete an unusual amount of gastric 
juice. This is so important an effect that if we could 



96 A HEALTHY BODY. 

only stop our investigation here, we should be justified 
in believing these liquors are of great benefit, causing a 
more abundant flow of the gastric juice. But other 
effects follow. What are they ? 

Let us quote from one of the greatest living authori- 
ties on this subject. In a work published on the action 
of various drugs on the human body, written for medical 
men alone, this writer says : " The first eff'ect is an 
increased flow of blood, the next is an increased flow 
of gastric juice. After this stimulation of the glands 
for a few times, the most serious changes occur in 
the mucous lining of the stomach, and in the stomach 
glands as well. The membrane becomes constantly red, 
or inflamed, and therefore secretes an imperfect juice ; 
later the stomach glands become smaller, and there is 
great difficulty in digesting the food." All this gives rise 
to a disease known as gastric catarrh. This is a slow 
inflammation of the stomach. The inflammation makes 
heat, and this heat gives rise to thirst and to a peculiar 
faint or sickening feeling, to quench which more liquor 
is used. For a short time this deadens the feeling, and 
the man thinks his drink has helped him. He argues 
that he has a bad stomach, and he drinks only a glass or 
two of beer or spirits as a medicine ; for he notices that 
after each drink his stomach feels better for a time. 

But as the stomach gets more inflamed it demands 
more liquor, and the frequency and quantity are in- 
creased, until an appetite is formed. Now the body is 
constantly craving more fluid to quiet the disturbed 
stomach and other organs. The man who is in the 



THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, ETC. 97 

habit of using alcoholic drinks is a sick man, and should 
bo under the care of a physician, that his diseased body 
may be restored to health, — if indeed it be not already 
too late to have it restored. 

The changes and effects we have described, come from 
the continued use of even small doses of alcohol. When 
large doses are taken within a comparatively short time, 
several results may follow. The most general one is 
acute inflammation of the stomach. The effects of this 
acute attack may disappear after a few days, provided 
no more alcohol be taken. 

The prolonged use of alcohol in large quantities 
causes marked changes in the structure of the stomach. 
The blood-vessels become permanently enlarged, and the 
tissue is so changed that in places it dies, or breaks 
down, forming ulcers. These ulcers may be minute and 
widely scattered, or one or more large ulcers may be 
formed. The glands become much reduced in size, and 
the gastric juice is weakened and unable to do its work. 
Thus the most severe forms of disease, with distressing 
pain and great loss of strength, directly follow. This con- 
dition of things may go still further, until the stomach 
will not retain any food given it, and a lingering and 
painful illness at last terminates in death. When a 
person has reached these last stages of chronic alcohol 
poisoning, he must have more alcohol or opium to quiet 
the burning pains, and there seems no relief from the 
terrible bondage. 

When we consider that one glass of liquor creates a 
desire for another, and when we understand to what all 

7 



98 A HEALTHY BODY. 

this may lead, we are prepared to agree that the best 
way to deal with such a drug is to let it alone. 

The Effect on the Liver. It is probable that nearly all 
the alcohol taken into the stomach is there absorbed, and 
that but very little, if any, passes out into the intestines. 
If it is taken up by the blood-vessels of the stomach, the 
first organ to which it is carried is the liver. Here it 
does immense damage. The liver, like all other organs, 
is made up of cells. These cells should have but very 
little, if any, fat in them. If their material is changed 
into fat, they can no longer either secrete bile, or store up 
the sugar for use in the body. But alcoholic drinks 
cause the liver to become large and fatty. If their use 
be continued, at a later stage the liver becomes smaller 
and harder than in health. This hard, small liver is 
so characteristic that it has been given a distinct name 
by medical men, — it is called "the drunkard's liver." 
The liver is doubtless the first organ to suffer from 
the use of alcoholic drinks. It undergoes an actual 
change in its structure, and brings about a general dis- 
order of the whole system as a result. The liver is 
made to suffer in other ways as well ; but these two 
results are sufficient to show the ill effects of this 
drug, — first, an enlargement and fatty change ; and 
second, after prolonged use, a shrinking and hardening 
of its structure. 

Effect of Tobacco on Digestion. The effect of tobacco on 
digestion is largely of a secondary nature. It first 



THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, ETC. 99 

affects tlic digestion of those who chew, because the sali- 
vary gUinds are so continuously overworked that when 
the saliva is most needed, at meal-time, only a scanty 
amount is furnished. Its more severe effects are show^n 
through the nervous system, causing a particular kind of 
indigestion, called nervous dyspepsia. 

The Tobacco Cancer. It is well enough to call attention, 
in this connection, to another bad effect from the use of 
tobacco. We refer to the " tobacco cancer,'' or '^ smok- 
er's cancer." The irritation caused by having the poison 
of the tobacco so constantly on the surface of the lip 
may give rise to a small ulcer, Avhich develops into a 
cancer. 

No Use for Tobacco. While the evil effects of tobacco 
are not equally manifest in all its users, it is evident 
that the habitual use of such a poison must sooner or 
later do harm. Sometimes this harm affects others. 
The children of chewers and smokers often inherit 
weak nerves and im^paired vital force from the to- 
bacco habits of their parents. To the growing boy or 
the rapidly developing young man, tobacco is most cer- 
tainly injurious. The younger the person who uses it, 
the more harmful it is. One of the worst things that can 
be said about this useless weed is that it is a narcotic, 
and thus deadens the finer sensibilities ; as a rule it is 
found to make the person who uses it thoughtless of the 
comfort and convenience of those about him. To satisfy 
his own desires he will smoke wherever and whenever 



100 A HEALTHY BODY. 

he chooses ; while the ladies of his acquaintance are 
compelled to be silent, or, from mistaken ideas of polite- 
ness, to tell an untruth by saying that the odor is agree- 
able. Two facts should stop nine tenths of the use of 
tobacco : first, if its use were not begun before one has 
reached the age of twenty-five, the mature judgment 
would indefinitely postpone the first trial ; second, if 
women were always asked for their consent to its use, 
and their decision were carried out, there would be little 
smoking or chewing. 

Opium. This drug will completely check digestion. It 
stops the flow of the gastric juice, and the contraction of 
the walls of the stomach and intestines ; it takes away 
the appetite, and deranges the whole digestive apparatus. 
The opium-eater begins with minute doses, and thus 
gets his system accustomed to its use, else he would not 
be able to endure its effects long. 

Tea and Coffee. When taken very strong and in large 
quantities, these beverages interfere with digestion in 
several ways. It is harmful to keep the system under 
their influence, and no young person should get into 
the habit of using them. 



ABSORrXlON. 101 



CHAPTER XVI. 

ABSORPTION. 

What has thus far been done. The saliva has changed 
some of the starchy foods into sugar ; the gastric juice 
has digested the lean meats, egg, etc. ; while the pan- 
creatic juice has digested the fats, changed all the rest 
of the starches into sugar, and finished the work of 
the stomach, if necessary, and the bile has flowed into 
the intestine to give its aid. All this work has been 
done in order that the foods which cannot be absorbed 
in their natural state may be changed to a liquid form, 
and thus taken up by two kinds of vessels, — the blood- 
vessels and the lymph-vessels. 

Absorption from the Stomach. The water that is taken 
into the system is generally absorbed by the blood-ves- 
sels of the stomach, and thus it enters at once into the 
general blood-current. There is some slight absorption 
of digested food, but this occurs principally in the small 
intestine. 

Villi of the Small Intestine. Hanging down from the 
inner walls of the small intestine are minute projec- 
tions, like fingers ; these are called villi. It is esti- 
mated that there are over four millions of them in the 
human body. 



102 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



Figure 31, b, shows a cross-section of the small in- 
testine, with a number of these little fingers, or villi, 
hanging into the central cavity. It also shows the two 
kinds of vessels. Let us place one of these villi under 
the microscope. We now see that a layer of cells 




Fig. 31. b, a cross-section of the small intestine, a, one of the villi of b, 
highly magnified : (1) the lacteals, or lymphatics ; (2) the blood-vessels. 



surrounds it, while its inside consists almost entirely of 
the two kinds of vessels. Directly in its centre is the 
lacteal, or lymph-vessel. There is also a large number 
of minute blood-vessels. What are these villi for ? 
What is the single lacteal for? Of what use are so 
manv little blood-vessels ? 



How the Foods are absorbed. As the fine rootlets of a 
plant soak up nourishment from the ground, so these 
villi take up the digested food. It would not be far 



AHSORP'riON. 



103 



from correct to say that tlio digested food soaks through 
the thin walls of the villi as water soaks through a 

cloth. Once in 
these little vessels, 
the absorbed food 
flows into larger 
vessels, as shown 
in Fig. 31, at the 
right, and these will 
soon unite together 
in one or two still 
larger vessels. Riv- 
ers are formed on 
the same plan. 
Small streams flow 
from many direc- 
tions ; these flow 
into each other to 
make larger ones ; 
and finally these 
unite together to 
make one broad 
stream. 

Although the 
blood-vessels and 
lacteals absorb the 
digested foods yet 

Fig. 32. i, intestine : (1) villi with central lac the WOrk of the lac- 
teals; (2) villi with blood-vessels. L, lymphatic . . . .. pp^frp 
or lacteal vessels. G, lymphatic gland. D, tho- i^ti^^^? ^^i ^^^^ Ltuuu 
racic dnct. p, portal vein. L, liver, at the left of tllC villi is laro'C- 
of the fic^ire. v, vein, H, heart. A, right au- 
ricle of heart, ly to take up the 




104 A HEALTHY BODY. 

digested fats, while the blood-vessels take up principally 
the other digested foods. 

The Portal Vein. The blood-vessels of the villi soon 
unite with each other to make a large vein, called the 
portal vein. This goes directly from the intestine to 
the liver. Pig. 32 shows where this vein begins, and 
where it ends. Its duty is to carry the digested foods 
to the liver. Prom this organ they will be conveyed 
into a large vein in the direction of the arrows of the 
figure. Thus the blood, with its digested foods, gets 
into the right side of the heart, and from the heart it 
will soon reach all parts of the body. 

The Thoracic Duct. The lacteals, or lymphatics, that 
are in the centre of the villi soon unite to make a large 
vessel, called the thoracic duct. This duct is as large 
as an ordinary slate pencil, and it lies in front of the 
spinal column. It ends above by emptying into the 
large vein just beneath the left collar-bone, and this 
vein goes directly to the right side of the heart. 

The Lymphatic Glands. There are small glands situated 
all along the course of the lymphatic vessels. These are 
the lymphatic glands. 

The Lymph Corpuscles. If some of the lymph from 
the thoracic duct be examined with the microscope, 
there will be found in it a vast number of minute bodies 
called lymph corpuscles. When they get into the 
blood they are called white blood corpuscles. These 
will be described later, when we study the blood. 



ABSORPTION. 105 

How the Digested Foods enter the Circulation. Let us 
first examine the course of some of the foods digested 
in the stomach, taking broiled steak as an example. 

Lean Meat. First, the beef is thoroughly chewed, or 
masticated ; second, it is swallowed ; third, it is digested 
by the gastric juice ; fourth, it is forced into the intestine 
by the contractions of the stomach ; fifth, it is absorbed 
from the intestine, principally by the blood-vessels of 
the villi ; sixth, it is carried by these vessels into the 
portal vein ; seventh, it is carried by the portal vein 
into the liver ; eighth, it passes out of the liver through 
the large veins which carry it to the heart. 

Starch. The starchy foods pass through the same 
channels, but the saliva and the pancreatic juices di- 
gest them, and they remain a longer time in the liver, 
stored up until they are needed. 

Fat. We will next follow some of the fatty foods. 
First, they are masticated, if necessary ; second, they 
are swallowed ; third, they pass out of the stomach un- 
changed ; fourth, in the intestine they are mixed with 
the bile and the pancreatic juices, and so changed that 
they can be absorbed ; fifth, they are absorbed mainly 
by the lacteals ; sixth, the lacteals carry them through 
the lymphatic glands to the bottom of the thoracic duct ; 
seventh, they pass up this duct and empty into the large 
vein wliich carries them directly to the heart. A study 
of Fig. 32 will make this clear, Begin the study with 
the intestine, T. 



106 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Fatty Foods. We shall suppose that the lacteals of the 
four villi at the right (1) are filled with the digested 
fatty food, called the chyle. The lacteals pass out of 
the intestine and, unite with each other to form larger 
vessels, which pass through glands, as shown at G. 
These vessels empty into the lower end of the thoracic 
duct, D. This end is expanded into a sac. The chyle 
passes up the duct and empties into the large vein, 
which soon carries it to the heart. 

Other Foods. Let us follow the course of such digested 
foods as meat and egg and the digested starches now 
changed to sugar. We shall suppose that the blood- 
vessels of the villi, marked 2, are filled with the digested 
foods. These vessels soon unite to make the portal 
vein, p. This vein carries the food to the liver, L. In 
due time the liver will send it out through the veins in 
the direction of the arrows, thus reaching the heart. 
In this manner we are able to trace any food from its 
natural state until it gets into the blood. 

The L3nnphatics. Besides the blood-vessels there are 
other fine vessels distributed all over the body, called 
lymphatics. Tliese small vessels unite to form larger 
ones, which eventually empty into the blood-vessels. 
The lymphatics collect the old, worn-out materials from 
all parts of the body and carry them to the blood-vessels, 
from which they are taken by organs made especially for 
such work, as the kidneys and other glands. 



THE BLOOD. 107 



CHAPTER XVIL 

THE BLOOD. 

Amount of Blood in the body. About one twelfth of the 
weight of the body is composed of blood. 

It is very generally distributed. Blood flows from any 
part of the body, wlien the skin is cut through, though 
there are certain portions of the body in which we can- 
not find blood; namely, the hard parts of teeth, the hair, 
the nails, the outer layer of the skin, some parts of the 
eye, and most of the cartilages. These are nourished by 
fluids which soak through from the blood-vessels. 

Composition of Blood. Blood appears to the unaided 
sight like any other red liquid ; but the microscope 
shows that there are two parts to it, — first, a watery 
fluid, called the plasma, and second, some minute bod- 
ies, known as the blood corpuscles. The liquid plasma 
looks like so much water, but we know there are many 
important substances dissolved in it which we cannot 
see and which can be found only by the chemist. The 
blood corpuscles may be seen and studied with a power- 
ful microscope. We thus learn that there are two kinds, 
known as the white and the red corpuscles. 



108 A HEALTHY BODY. 

White Corpuscles. The white corpuscle, as its name 
tells us, is without color. When persons become weak 
and pale, the microscope shows that their blood has in 
it too many of the white corpuscles, and not enough of 
the red. There ought to be only one white corpuscle to 
about three hundred red. 

Red Corpuscles. The red corpuscles of man are cir- 
cular bodies that are slightly hollowed towards the 
centre. In a great many animals they are of this same 
shape, but in birds, fishes, snakes, and some other ani- 
mals, they are oval. Fig. 33 shows the oval corpuscles 









-• -■; 



I 






Fig. 33. (1) Frog's blood; (2) Human blood, a, the white corpuscles; 
B, the red corpuscles. 

of frog's blood, and the circular ones of human blood. 
One red corpuscle of man's blood is represented as seen 
on the edge, which shows how it is hollowed towards 
the centre. These corpuscles are very small. If placed 
side by side in a straight line, it would take over three 
thousand of them to cover a single inch in length. 



THE BLOOD. 109 

The Number of Red Corpuscles. It is impossible for us 
to realize how many red corpuscles there are in the 
body ; in a small drop of blood there are as many as 
five millions. 

Their Use in the Body. The red corpuscles may be com- 
pared to little circular boats floating in the water of the 
blood. They go to the lungs, where they get very near 
the air, and take from it all the oxygen they can 
carry. Then they hasten away to some distant part of 
the body where some tissue needs it. To such tissue 
the corpuscles give up their oxygen while they are going 
through the capillaries ; then they hasten back to the 
lungs for another load. For this reason, the red cor- 
puscles are called oxygen-carriers. 

Arterial Blood. When these corpuscles have a great 
deal of oxygen in them, or when they have just left 
the lungs, they are bright in color, and they make the 
whole blood appear bright scarlet. This bright-colored 
blood is found in the arteries, hence it is called arterial 
blood. 

The Pulmonary Veins. There is one place where this 
bright blood is found in the veins ; namely, in the vessels 
that carry the blood from the lungs to the left side of 
the heart. These vessels are called the pulmonary veins. 

Venous Blood. After the corpuscles have passed 
through the capillaries, and have there given up their 



110 A HEALTHY BODY. 

oxygen to the tissues, they become darker, and as a re- 
sult the whole blood looks darker. Dark blood is found 
in the blood-vessels which extend from the capillaries 
through the body and back to the lungs. 

The Pulmonary Artery. The pulmonary artery carries 
blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs. It 
must, therefore, contain venous blood. We say that the 
arteries contain arterial blood, and the veins venous 
blood ; but to this rule there are the two exceptions we 
have just given, in the cases of the pulmonary artery 
and the pulmonary veins. 

The Air. The air we breathe consists principally of 
two gases, — oxygen and nitrogen. 

Oxygen and Carbonic Acid Gas. All parts of the body 
need oxygen. If we did not have it we should die in a 
few moments. It is necessary that we should have it in 
large quantities ; for this reason we are more healthy if 
we always breathe fresh and pure air. 

There is another gas we must study in this connection. 
Carbonic acid gas is unlike oxygen, for no animal will 
live if placed in it. It is a deadly poison to all animal 
life. After the tissues have taken up the oxygen from 
the blood they give back to it this carbonic acid gas. 

Difference between Arterial and Venous Blood. The prin- 
cipal differences between arterial and venous blood are 
these : — 



THE BLOOD. Ill 

Arterial blood has more oxygen than has venous 
blood. 

Venous blood has more carbonic acid than has arterial 
blood. 

Arterial blood parts with its oxygen in the capillaries. 

Venous blood parts with its carbonic acid in the lungs. 

Arterial blood is of a bright scarlet color. 

Venous blood is of a darker, nearly purple color. 

The Clotting of Blood. After blood has flowed out of the 
blood-vessels for a short time, it thickens into a jelly- 
like mass. This is called the clotting, or coagulation, 
of the blood. Blood does not clot while it is in the 
vessels unless there is some disease. Sometimes a 
blood-vessel breaks in the brain, and a small amount of 
blood escapes into the substance of the brain. Then 
it clots, and this clot causes the disease known as apo- 
plexy. It is because blood clots that we do not bleed to 
death when we cut through the skin, or in any way 
cause the blood to flow. The little clot that is formed 
at the opening of the blood-vessel closes it and the 
flow ceases. If the blood flows slowly, it will clot 
more easily. So when we are wounded in any way, we 
should by checking its flow for a short time help the 
blood to clot. This may be done by pressing on the 
wounded spot and by keeping it very quiet, so that 
after the clot has formed in the end of the injured 
vessel it will not be disturbed. 

The Blood in case of Injury. When one is injured, 
we can tell whetlier the blood is from an artery or a 



112 A HEALTHY BODY. 

vein, not only by its color, but also by the way it flows. 
If it comes from an artery, it flows in jerks ; we say the 
blood spurts. If it comes from a vein, the flow will be 
in a steady stream. It is more dangerous to have an 
artery injured than a vein, as the flow from an artery 
is not so easily stopped. 

ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD. 

Surgeons tell us that wounds do not heal as readily 
on those who are in the habit of using alcoholic drinks 
as they do on those who never use them. This is be- 
cause the alcohol has affected the blood in some way, 
so that an injury is more likely to be followed by 
inflammation. 



CIKCULATION. 113 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

CIRCULATION. 

To understand how the blood is carried to all parts 
of the body we must study the heart, the arteries, the 
capillaries, and the veins. 

The Heart. The heart is a large involuntary muscle. 
In shape it is something like a pear, with the small end 
down and to the left. It is situated in the chest with 
the lungs. By reference to Fig. 29, it will be seen 
that the heart and lungs nearly fill the thoracic cavity, 
and that they are separated from the organs in the 
abdomen by the thin wall of muscle called the dia- 
phragm. The heart is enclosed in a sac, the lower 
part of which rests on this diaphragm. 

The Position of the Heart. The heart is not all on the 
left side. The rule is that if we draw a line down 
the middle of the breast-bone, as shown in Fig. 34, 
the heart will extend about three inches to the left 
of the line, and one and a half inches to the right. 
The base, or larger part, is up as high as the third 
rib, and more of the base is on the right side than on 

8 



114 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



the left. 



The poiiit of the heart extends well over 

the left side : it is there 
we can feel it beat. 
The illustration shows 
that this point is be- 
tween the fifth and 
sixth ribs, and that the 
heart is placed oblique- 
ly in the chest. 

The Cavities in the 
Heart. The heart is di- 



FiG. 34. The position of the heart. 




vided lengthwise, by a 
firm wall, into two parts, 
so that there is no con- 
nection whatever be- 
tween the two sides. 
The left side always 
contains arterial blood, 
and the right side ven- 
ous blood. By reference 
to Pig. 35 it will be seen 
that the parts 8 and 4 
together represent the 
right side, while the parts 
6 and 7 together repre- 
sent the left side. The 
wall between the two 




Fig. 35. The heart, and the larger ves- 
sels at its base or upper part : (1) and 
(2) veins ; (3) right auricle ; (4) right 
ventricle; (5) pulmonary artery; (6) left 
auricle; (7) left ventricle; (8) aorta. 



CIHCULATIUN. 



115 



is shown by tlic loca- 
tion of a small blood- 
vessel seen on the 
outside of the heart to 
the left of ninnbcr 7. 
By examining- each 
side a cross-))artition 
is seen, dividing it 
into two parts. Num- 
bers 3 and 4 repre- 
sent the two parts of 
the right side, while 
numbers 6 and 7 rep- 
resent the two parts 
of the left side. 

The wall that di- 
vides the heart cross- 
wise is not a com- 
plete one, but has 
openings through it. 





Fig. 37. 



A cross-section of the ventricles of 
the heart. 



Fig. 36. Diagram illustrating the flow of blood 
through the heart : (1) and (2) veins ; (3) right 
auricle; (4) right ventricle; (5) pulmonary- 
artery; (6) pulmonary veins; (7) left auricle: 
(S) left ventricle; (9) aorta. 



so that blood can 
pass from 3 to 4 on 
one side, and from 
6 to 7 on the other. 
These openings are 
protected by doors 
which Nature has 
provided ; these 
doors are called 
valves. In conse- 



116 A HEALTHY BODY. 

quence of these walls, or partitions, there are four cavities 
in the heart. The two upper cavities are called the auri- 
cles. They are so named because tliey look like ears, 
for the word auricle means ear. The four cavities are 
as follows : the right auricle, the right ventricle, the left 
auricle, and the left ventricle. 

The Contraction of the Heart. Each ventricle holds 
from four to six ounces of blood. When the heart 
contracts, it makes its cavities smaller, thus driving or 
pushing the blood that is in it into the large channels 
which lead from its upper part. 

The Course of the Blood through the Heart. Let us follow 
the circulation of the blood through the heart. Notice 
Fig. 36, and follow the numbers in order, also the ar- 
rows. Two large veins, 1 and 2, bring the blood from 
the body back to the right auricle. The right auricle, 
8, contracts and pushes the blood into the right ven- 
tricle, 4. The right ventricle contracts and pushes the 
blood into a large vessel, called the pulmonary artery, 

5. This soon divides into two vessels, one going to each 
lung. After passing through the lungs the blood is 
brought to the left auricle, 7, by the pulmonary veins, 

6. The left auricle contracts and pushes the blood into 
the left ventricle, 8. The left ventricle contracts and 
pushes the blood into a large artery, 9, which carries it 
to other vessels, as shown by Fig. 38. Briefly, the 
circulation follows this course : from large veins into 
right auricle ; then through right ventricle ; then through 



CIHCULATIOX. 



117 



the lungs ; then to 
the left auricle ; then 
throuo'h left ventricle ; 
then out to the body. 

Power of Contraction 
greater on one Side than 
the Other. The right ven- 
tricle of the heart has 
to contract with just 
force enough to send 
the blood to the lungs, 
which are only a short 
distance away ; but the 
left ventricle has to con- 
tract with force enough 
to send the blood to 
distant parts of the 
body. Hence the walls 
of the left ventricle 
are much thicker and 
stronger than those of 
the right. Fig. 37 
shows a cross section 
of the heart when it is 
contracted. The left 

ventricle is at the right Fig. 38. The general plan of the circiila- 
P , 1 n tion: N, the neck; D, the diapliragm ; A, 

01 the ngure. ^^le lower border of the abdominal cavity ; 

V, veins returning the blood to the right 
side of tlie heart. All other vessels represent arteries, which carry blood to 
the following parts : (1) to the head; (2) to the arms; (8) to the legs; (^) to 
the liver; (5) to the stomach, pancreas, and spleen; (6) to the kidneys. 




118 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The General Circulation. A study of Fig. 38 will show 
how all the large arteries that carry blood to the differ- 
ent parts of the body come from the artery that curves 
back from the upper part of the heart and passes down 
the central part of the body. In Fig. 35 this vessel 
(the aorta) is indicated by number 8, and in Fig. 36 at 
number 9. 

The Valves in the Heart. By reference to Fig. 36 
some valves will be seen. They are .represented as 
doors that can open but one way ; hence they will not 
let the blood flow in the wrong direction. If the blood 
should try to pass back, these doors would tightly close. 
All the doors are represented as open. These valves are 
seen between 3 and 4, between 4 and 5, between 7 and 
85 and between 8 and 9. 

The Heart rests. All the tissues of the body must have 
rest, so the heart has its time to rest ; for after a part 
has contracted, there is a slight pause before it con- 
tracts again. This time seems short, yet when all these 
moments are put together they amount to between six 
and eight hours of each day. 

The Heart works. The heart does an immense amount 
of work. Suppose the heart beats seventy times each 
minute : this would give over four thousand beats an 
hour, or nearly one hundred thousand a day. If all the 
work that the heart does in a single hour could be done 
at once, it would equal the force required to lift five 
tons of coal a foot from the ground. 



CIRCULATION. 



119 



How fast does the Heart beat ? Some things will make 
the heart beat fast, and others will make it beat slowly. 
Sorrow and depression of s})irits make it beat slowly. 
Excitement, as joy, anger, etc., make it beat fast; exer- 
cise makes it beat fast. It beats faster when we are 
standing than when we are sitting; faster when sitting 
than when lying ; faster when awake than when asleep. 

The number of beats is about ten more each minute 
in women than it 

is in men : in man " ^ 

it is between sixty 
and seventy a min- 
ute. Some persons 
have naturally either 
a slow or a quick 
pulse. The number 
is less in old age, 
while in young chil- 
dren it is as high as 
120 to 140 a minute. 

Fig. 39. a, a small artery ; c, capillaries ; 
The Sounds of the v, a small vein. 

Heart. Each time 

that the heart beats it makes two sounds. These can 
be distinctly heard if the ear be placed over the heart. 
One sound quickly follows the other, and then there 
is a period of silence. You will notice that these 
sounds are not alike. They are always of a certain 
character in health, so that the physician is able to tell, 
by listening to them, whether the heart is diseased or not. 




120 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



The Pulse. The pulse at the wrist is caused by the 
sudden expansion of the artery. The heart pushes so 
much blood into the arteries that it makes them swell, 
or expand, at each beat. 



Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries. The largest artery in 
the body is the one that comes from the left ventricle 

of the heart; it is 
called the aorta. 
Fig. 38 shows that 
not far from the 
heart the aorta gives 
off many branches. 
These branches 
divide again and 
again, until they 
become so small 
that they cannot 
be seen with the 
unaided eye, and a 
microscope is neces- 
sary to study them. 
These fine branches 
are called capillaries. 
Fig. 39 illustrates the way in which a small artery 
divides to make the capillaries, and also how these 
capillaries unite to make a small vein. It is while the 
blood is in these capillaries that the tissues take from 
it the oxygen and other nourishment for their growth 
and repair. 





Fig. 40. (1) valves of a vein closed; (2) valves 
of a vein opened. 



CIRCULATION. 121 

Valves in the Veins. We found that tlicre were valves 
in the heart to keep the blood from flowing in the wrong 
direction ; and we find that there are many valves in 
the veins for the same purpose. Fig. 40 shows the 
arrangement of these valves. In the vein marked 2 
the valves are open, and the blood is flowing in the 
direction of the arrows without anything to prevent it. 
But if the blood should attempt to flow in the opposite 
direction, as shown in the vein marked 1, then the valves 
would close and completely shut off the passage. 

How rapid is the Circulation? The heart contracts with 
such force that the flow of blood in the large vessels 
near it is very rapid, but when the blood passes through 
the minute capillaries, the rapidity of its current is 
greatly diminished. The current in the veins is not so 
rapid as in the arteries, and is the slowest in the capil- 
laries. The heart contracts with such force and fre- 
quency that a quantity of blood can leave it and go to 
the most distant parts of the body and get back again 
to its starting-place in less than half a minute. 



122 A HEALTHY BODY. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

1. Procure at the market the heart of a calf or sheep. 
Preserve the large vessels at its base ; wash in water and 
wipe dry; call attention to its shape; hold it obliquely, 
with the base up, to show its position in the body ; notice 
the auricles, ventricles, and large vessels at its base. 

2. Illustrate the circulation of blood through the heart, 
by pointing to each part in order ; thus, through right 
auricle, then right ventricle, then to the lungs, back to 
the heart, through left auricle, then through left ventricle, 
and out through the aorta. 

3. Cut the heart open transversely, about half-way back 
from the apex. This will appear as in Pig. 37. Call atten- 
tion to the firm partition between the sides. 

4. Cut the ventricles away up close to the auricles. 
Notice the white thin membranes that are in the open- 
ings between the auricles and ventricles: these are the 
valves. 



EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE HEAKT. 123 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AND TO- 
BACCO ON THE HEART AND THE CIR- 
CULATION. 

On the Heart. Alcohol affects the heart through the 
nerves which control it. The heart is not controlled by 
an effort of the will ; it keeps steadily at work whether 
we command it to do so or not. It is, however, con- 
trolled by nerves, which regulate its beat. By experi- 
ments on the lower animals it has been proved that 
there are nerves which act as breaks to the heart ; 
they keep the heart from beating too fast, and thus 
hold it steadily to its work. If these nerves lose their 
control in any way, the heart will beat faster. 

We shall learn in another chapter that one great effect 
of alcohol is to paralyze the nerves. Here, likewise, al- 
cohol tends to benumb, or partially paralyze, the nerves 
that control the beating of the heart ; and thus it beats 
more frequently. This increased beating means that the 
lieart has just so much less time in which to rest. As 
it has to perform so much extra work, one result is that 
its walls are thickened and its cavities enlarged. A later 
effect is still more to be dreaded. "We have already said 
that the tendency of alcoholic drinks is to change healthy 



124 A HEALTHY BODY. 

tissue into fatty tissue ; and the heart forms no excep- 
tion to this rule. Its strong, muscular fibres become 
changed into fatty material, which has no power to 
contract. The whole heart enlarges, and its muscle 
feels soft and flabby. The process of fatty change 
(degeneration) has gone on so long that this muscle 
cannot contract with power enough to send the blood 
completely around its circuit, and dropsy, difiiculty in 
breathing, and other ailments surely follow. At last the 
muscle becomes so weak that it can no longer contract, 
and the heart suddenly fails to beat. There are other 
causes of a fatty heart, but medical men everywhere 
recognize the use of alcohol as the most frequent cause 
of this incurable disease. 

On the Arteries. The tissues that compose the walls of 
the arteries also are liable to undergo this same fatty 
change. As a result they are weakened, and thus are 
liable to rupture. Rupture of an artery in the brain is 
the cause of the disease known as apoplexy. 

On the Smaller Vessels. There are nerves in our body 
whose only function is to keep the walls of the small 
blood-vessels contracted to a certain size, so that they 
will be more firm and not so liable to get too full 
of blood. Alcohol paralyzes these nerves, and they 
lose their power over the small vessels. This may 
be only temporary, if a single dose of alcohol be 
taken ; but if the doses be repeated for some time, 
this condition becomes permanent, so that entire free- 



EFFECT OF TOBACCO ON THE HEART. 125 

dom from alcohol will not restore the original power 
to the nerves. 

What does the red nose of the confirmed drinker 
indicate ? What do the red eyes and red cheeks indi- 
cate ? They show that there is paralysis of some of the 
nerves. They show that the nerves which hold the walls 
of the blood-vessels firm have become powerless, and 
that the vessels have become distended and filled too 
much with blood. Redness of the eyes, nose, and 
cheeks, denotes that the nerves must be greatly affected 
by this poison. 

The heart and the blood-vessels feel the effects of this 
harmful influence on the nervous system, and they show 
it by the irregular beating of the former, and the dila- 
tation of the latter. The red face and eyes of the 
drinker tell a terrible tale, and should be an awful 
warning to their owner that the most vital tissues of 
his system, the nerves, are becoming profoundly af- 
fected. Many would stop their downward course if 
they could. But the heart misses its stimulant, the 
stomach demands more fluid to quiet its burnings ; and 
the nerves awake from their sleep and declare by their 
aches and pains that things are going wrong. Some- 
thing must be done. What shall it be ? 

The true physician steps in, and declares that the 
patient is ill and needs careful attention. He pre- 
scribes out-door exercise, treats the inflamed stomach, 
allows only a limited diet until the liver recovers from 
its abuse, and strongly advises that new friends and 
associates be formed, and that no alcoholic liquors ever 



126 A HEALTHY BODY. 

be used again. If the power to resist temptation is 
sufficiently strong the weak bodj^ slowly recovers, — a 
happy result, which one could wish might always fol- 
low; but in too many cases the old appetite is stronger 
than the influence of the physician. 

TOBACCO. 

The active principle of tobacco, nicotine, will, if taken 
in sufficient quantity, completely paralyze the heart. 
When the fumes of tobacco are inhaled, only a very 
small amount of this poison enters the system. Still, 
even this small amount, when taken steadily for a long 
time, is liable to cause palpitation of the heart, as well 
as severe pain. Under the influence of nicotine, the 
beat of the heart becomes unsteady and irregular; and 
this irregularity follows so frequently the use of tobacco 
that physicians call this form of cardiac disease the 
"tobacco heart." So far as is known, the tissues of 
the heart are not changed by this drug ; but it so affects 
the nerves that the heart does not keep steadily and 
regularly at work. 

A medical writer has lately said that the pulse of 
persons using tobacco is from ten to fifteen beats per 
minute faster than is normal. 



KESPIUATION. 



127 



CHAPTER XX. 



RESPIRATION. 



The Larynx. After the air has passed through the nose 
it reaches the larynx. This is sometimes called the voice- 
box, because it contains some membranes that are used 

in producing sounds. 
The expansion on the 
front of the larynx 
is commonly known 
as Adam's apple. 

The Epiglottis. When 
food is swallowed, it 
passes down the oeso- 
phagus, or gullet. If 
goes the wrong way, and 
passes down the larynx, it causes 
severe coughing. As these two 
canals lie side by side, as shown 
in Figs. 41 and 42, how is it that 
the food will pass down one, and 
the air pass down the other ? It 
is because there is a little valve 




Fig. 41. View of the inside of 
the nose, month, etc.: (l)the 
mouth; (2) position of the 
tonsils ; (3) the uvula, com- 
monly called the palate; (4) 
the epiglottis ; (5)thetonp^ue ; 
(6) the nasal passage ; (7) the 
larynx; (8) the pharynx. 



128 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



at the top of the larynx. This shuts tightly over the 
larynx whenever anything is swallowed, but always re- 
mains open when we are not swallowing. This valve is 
called the epiglottis. 



The Trachea. Just below the larynx is the trachea, 
which consists of rings of cartilage. These can be felt 

plainly in front of the 
throat. At its base the 
trachea divides into 
two branches, called 
the bronchial tubes, 
one branch going to 
each lung. After en- 
tering the lungs, each 
branch divides again 
and again, until its 




branches 
quires a 



are so small that it re- 
microscope to see them. 
At the end of each little branch 
there is a collection of minute sacs, 
called the air-cells. 



The Pleura. The inner walls of 

the chest are lined with a double 

membrane like a sac, called the 

pleura. This pours out a fluid 

which keeps its surfaces moist, so that when the lungs 

move against the walls of the chest they can do so easily 



Fig. 42. A diagram illus- 
trating the position and 
use of the epiglottis, rep- 
resented as a valve, v. 



KESriKATION. 



129 



and without i)ain. An inflammation of this membrane 
is called ])lenrisy. 

The Lungs. There arc two lungs, one in each side of 
the chest. They contract and expand ; this is due to a 




Fig. 43. The breathing organs: (1) the epiglottis; (2) the larynx, or voice- 
1)0x; (3) the trachea, or wind-pipe; (4) the right lung; (5) the left lung. 

tissue in them, which is something like rubber, and is 
known as elastic tissue. In its natural condition it is 

9 



130 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



contracted; but when some force is applied, it stretches 
out like a piece of rubber. Filling the lungs with air 
stretches this tissue ; but it immediately contracts again, 
forcing the air out. From this we see that if we fill the 
lungs they will empty themselves. 

How we Breathe. Why is it that air enters the lungs ? 
If you will watch the working of a pair of bellows, 

you will have the explanation. 
When the handles are separated 
the air rushes in. Why? Be- 
cause the air is pressing in every 
direction, and when the inside 
of the bellows is made larger 
by separating the handles, the 
air rushes in to fill the extra 
space. 

The chest is a tight box, with 
only one opening at the top, — 
the larynx. Suppose we suddenly 
make this box larger ; then more 
air rushes in through the open- 
ing. How is the chest made larger? The diaphragm 
moves down, making the chest larger in that direction, 
while the ribs move and make the front and sides of 
the chest swell out. Then the air rushes in to fill the 
extra space. 

Inspiratioii. Taking in the air is called inspiration. 

Expiration. Breathing out the air is called expiration. 




Fig. 44. (1) the end of a small 
bronchial tube ; (2) air-cells ; 
(3) some of the air-cells cut 
open, showing free passage to 
them from the bronchial tube . 



RESI'IUATION. 



131 



Respiration. One inspiration and one expiration, taken 
together, ai'o called a respiration. There are from fifteen 
to eighteen respirations a minute. 




Fig. 45. This cut shows the position of the lungs and their relation to certain 
organs : (1) the trachea; (2) the collar-bone; (3) the ribs; (4) the lungs; 
(5) the dark-curved line shows the position of the heart; (6) the diaphragm, 
extending in a curved direction from one figure to the other; (7) the liver; 
(8) the stomach; (9) the breastbone. 

Causes of a Respiration. Inspiration is caused by the 
enlarging of the chest, as described above. Expiration 
is caused by the elastic tissue contracting to its natural 
condition, thus forcing the air out. 



132 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Voluntary or Involuntary? Breathing is partly under 
the control of the will, and partly not. We breathe 
when we are not thinking of it, and we can for a time 
breathe either more slowly or faster than usual. Ordi- 
nary breathing, however, is inyoluntary. 

Sounds of the Chest. When the air rushes in and out 
of the lungs, it makes peculiar sounds. By listening 
to these sounds the physician is able to tell whether the 
lungs are healthy or not. 

Blood-Vessels of the Lungs. There are a great many 
blood-vessels in the lungs, together with great numbers 
of capillaries on the walls of the air-cells, so that the air 
and the blood come very near each other. 

Why do we Breathe? We breathe in order to get the 
oxygen that is in the air into our bodies, and also to get 
the carbonic acid of the body into the air. How is this 
done ? The red corpuscles of the blood take the oxygen 
from the air and carry it to all parts of the body, and 
the blood brings back to the lungs and gives to the air 
the carbonic acid it has received from the tissues. The 
blood while in the lungs receives oxygen, and gives up 
carbonic-acid gas. 

The Expired Air. Expired air contains this carbonic 
acid and two other ingredients coming from the body. 
These are u watery vapor and an animal substance. As 
a rule, we cannot see the watery vapor ; but on a cold, 
frosty morning, it freezes on the beards of men, and we 



RESPIKATTON. 133 

all say we can sec our own breath. If we breathe on 
any polished surface, as a mirror, or even the window, 
the vapor will show. From one half -pint to one pint 
of water in this way is given off from the body each 
day. 

The animal substance consists of a minute quantity 
of material that gives a peculiar odor to the breath 
of some animals, as the cow. The odor is not noticed 
in the expired air coming from the healthy human 
body ; yet it putrefies very quickly, and we notice 
it at once if we enter a poorly ventilated room in 
which a number of persons have remained for some 
time. 

Results of Breathing. By breathing, the blood gains 
oxygen, and loses carbonic acid, watery vapor, and some 
animal matter. The blood does not take out all the 
oxygen from the air in the lungs ; therefore it is pos- 
sible to live a short time breathing the same air over 
again : but soon there is not enough oxygen left in this 
air to support life. 

How to Breathe. We should breathe through the nose, 
for the following good reasons : the air will enter in 
small quantities ; it will get warmed in cold weather ; 
it will be moistened by passing over the moist lining of 
the nose, and dust will-cling to this membrane and will 
not reach the lungs. If one breathes through the mouth, 
the throat becomes dry, and in the winter the cold air 
is likely to chill the warm blood of the lungs. 



134 A HEALTHY BODY. 

How One Takes Cold. One of the easiest ways to take 
cold is to pass from a heated room to the open air and 
inhale the cold air through the mouth. Keep the mouth 
closed, and breathe through the nose. 

Tight-Lacing. The waist cannot be bound tight with- 
out interfering with the free action of the chest, which 
cannot enlarge as much as it should, and, as a result, 
the blood will not get sufficient oxygen. Binding the 
body also interferes with the circulation of the blood, 
and with the proper working of all the organs thus 
compressed. Clothing may be made to fit the body 
closely and firmly without harm; but tight-lacing is 
very injurious. 

ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO AND THE LUNGS. 

AlcohoL As the heart beats faster and weaker under 
the influence of alcohol, the lungs are apt to be con- 
tinually over-filled with blood. This tends to produce 
frequent attacks of bronchitis, colds, and other lung 
troubles. Medical writers of late years have recognized 
a rapidly fatal disease of the lungs which has been 
named alcoholic consumption. A very noted London 
authority, Dr. Peacock, who was in charge of a large 
hospital for consumptives, says that alcohol is a fre- 
quent cause of some of the severest forms of lung 
disease. 

Tobacco. Tobacco is especially injurious to the lungs 
and throat. By its use the latter is made dry, and the 



RESPIRATION. 135 

voice becomes husky from the irritation of the poison. 
The membrane lining the larynx and the bronchial tubes 
is also irritated, producing a dry, hacking cough. The 
smoker's sore throat is a very common affection, and 
can be cured only by giving up the habit altogether. 
Some smokers inhale the smoke, or draw it into their 
lungs. This must certainly prove injurious. 



136 A HEALTHY BODY. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

1. Procure at the market the lungs of a sheep. Wash 
in water and wipe dry. Call attention to the rings of the 
trachea. Notice how the trachea divides before entering 
the lungs. 

2. Put a tube of any kind in the trachea. Tie the trachea 
tightly about it. Put the mouth to the tube and force air 
through it^ and the lungs will slightly expand ; take away 
the mouth, and the lungs will collapse at once. The nozzle 
of a pair of bellows may be inserted in the tube, if pre- 
ferred, and the lungs inflated by working the handles. 

3. Cut off a small piece of the lung, and throw it into 
water. You notice that it does not sink, — which shows 
that all the air has not escaped. Press the piece in the 
hand, and try again. Still it will not sink. We cannot 
breathe out all the air that is in the lungs. 

4. After an ordinary expiration let the pupil make an 
extra effort and breathe out more air. This proves that we 
do not exhale all the air in the lungs with each respiration. 

5. Illustrate, by means of a x^air of bellows, how the air 
will rush into a cavity when the cavity is made larger. The 
raising of one handle of the bellows corresponds to the 
lowering of the diaphragm and the swelling out of the 
chest. 

6. Let the scholars illustrate inspiration, expiration, and 
a complete respiration. 

7. Show that respiration is partly voluntary. Breathe 
fast, then slow, a few times. 

8. Prove the presence of a watery vapor in expired air, 
by breathing on a mirror or on any polished surface. 



VENTILATION. 137 



CHAPTER XXI. 

VENTILATION. 

As we inhale about one pint of air each time that we 
breathe, and as the expired air has poisonous substances 
in it, we should be careful to have an abundance of fresh, 
pure air about us all the time. 

How to obtain Pure Air. Cold air is not necessarily 
pure air, neither is a current of air always pure. Our 
rooms should be so arranged that there is an unfailing 
supply of fresh, out-door air pouring into them, and we 
should take care that our sleeping-rooms are supplied 
with a constant change of air. An open grate, or a regis- 
ter, or a stove may cause a sufficient current. The air 
may be easily changed by raising the lower sash of one 
window and lowering the upper sash of another. 

Avoid Currents of Air. If a current of air — a draught, 
as it is called — be allowed to strike on some sensitive part 
of the body, as the bacli of the neck, it is very likely to 
cause a cold, or something more severe. All currents of 
air sliould be avoided, especially when the body is moist 
with perspiration. 



138 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Odors. It is a fact that one odor can cover up another 
without destroying it. The odor of flowers may cover 
up the odor of a poorly ventilated room. Air may be 
very poisonous, and yet be made agreeable to the sense 
of smell. 

Deodorizers. Any substance that will replace the odor 
of another, and yet not destroy it, is called a deodorizer. 
People burn coffee and sugar to destroy some odor that 
they fear will produce disease ; but thereby they only 
cover the odor with one more powerful. 

Disinfectants. Disinfectants actually destroy odors. 
These are largely used by physicians to destroy disease- 
germs and to remove odors that are not only offensive^ 
but also injurious to health. 

Absorbents. Whitewashing a room sweetens and puri- 
fies the air, because the lime that is used absorbs certain 
gases. Lime and charcoal are both good absorbents. 

Contagion. There are some very poisonous substances 
that do not let their presence be known by any odor 
whatever. This is true of the germs in contagious dis- 
eases, as diphtheria and scarlet fever. 

Persons suffering from any contagious disease should 
be placed at once in a well-ventilated room, and all who 
who have not had the disease should be kept from them. 

The author knows two families in New York State, living 
very near each other, which were attacked by diphtheria. 
The parents of the first family took the first child who 



VENTILATION. 139 

was stricken with the disease into a room in the second 
story of the house, to which none of the remaining five 
children were allowed to go. In fact, no one was al- 
lowed to visit that room except the doctor and the mother. 
On the fifth day the child died, but not one of the other 
children had the disease. In the other house there were 
nine children. The father said he did not believe that 
a little sore throat was catching. Even after one of the 
children was stricken with the disease, the father would 
not consent that the directions of the physician should 
be carried out, and the children played together as 
usual. As a consequence, all nine children had the dis- 
ease, and eight of them died within two weeks. 

Nature has certain laws, and if we disobey them our 
punishment is often swift, and always certain. It is our 
duty to find out what these laws are, and then obey 
them. 



140 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

SLEEP. 

All animals that have a well-developed nervous system 
must, at times, lie down to rest and to sleep. It is ne- 
cessary not only that the brain have this rest, but also 
that the whole body have a share in it. 

We must Sleep. By drowsiness and weariness we are 
warned that the body needs time to repair itself ; and 
although this warning may be disregarded for a time, yet 
if we are in health, sleep will overtake us, sooner or later, 
no matter where we are. 

How long shall we Sleep ? Some persons require much 
more sleep than others, consequently no rule can be 
given that is suitable to every one. Infants sleep a good 
part of the time. It is said that Napoleon slept but three 
or four hours of the twenty-four. In middle life the aver- 
age person requires about eight hours of sleep ; before 
that age the time should be longer. It is a symptom of 
approaching trouble when one cannot get sleep. If one 
remains awake many hours beyond the usual time for 
sleep, the whole system feels the need, and most seriously 
objects. 



SLEEP. 141 

To promote Sleep. Out-door exercise during the day, 
early and light suppers, rest during the evening, and 
Avarm feet, will tend to i)romote sleep. But, with all 
these, if the mind be filled with grief or anxiety or 
heavy care, it will not let the body rest. 

Early to Bed. Tlie midnight lamp of the student 
should be thrown out of the window. Better work can 
be done in one hour in the morning than in two late at 
night. Students need much sleep. They do not need 
the morning nap, however, as much as they need the 
sleep that comes before midnight ; therefore, " early to 
bed and early to rise " is as good a motto for the student 
as for the farmer. 

Plenty of sleep is one of the laws that must not be 
broken. The night should not be turned into day, nor 
the day into night, in order to please our fancy. He who 
persists in breaking Nature's laws will pay a severe pen- 
alty ; he will lose that which is more precious than gold, — 
a healthy body. 

Lay aside your books, go to bed early, have fresh air 
in the room, and lie down to quiet and restful sleep. 
Awake with the rising of the sun, and while the brain is 
refreshed, impress it with the teachings of the books. 

NARCOTICS AND SLEEP. 

Natural sleep strengthens the will. 
Narcotic sleep weakens the will. 
Natural sleep strengthens the muscles. 
Narcotic sleep makes the muscles tremulous. 



142 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Natural sleep strengthens the nerves. 

Narcotic sleep paralyzes the nerves. 

Natural sleep gives a regular beat to the heart. 

Narcotic sleep makes the heart beat irregularly. 

Natural sleep strengthens the digestive organs. 

Narcotic sleep causes dyspepsia, furred tongue, nausea, 
loss of appetite, and jaundice. 

Natural sleep rests the whole body. 

Narcotic sleep causes dreams, and does not refresh the 
body. 

Natural sleep builds up. 

Narcotic sleep tears down, exhausts. 

Natural sleep makes one awake cheerful and pleasant. 

Narcotic sleep is a cause of melancholy, and frequently 
leads to suicide. 



THE KIDNEYS. 



143 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



THE KIDNEYS. 



The kidneys lie close to the back, one on each side 
of the spinal column (see Fig. 29). In shape they re- 




FlQ. 47. One of the tubes of the 
kidney, magnified. 



Fig. 46. A kidney : a, an arterj^; v, 
a vein ; D, the duct that carries away 
the materials filtered from the blood. 



semble a bean. They are 
composed of a number of 

minute tubes, which are so small that they can be seen 

only with a microscope. 



i44 A healtuy body. 

The kidneys may be called the filters of the body, 
^he blood is constantly flowing through them, and the 
tubes of the kidneys are steadily at work filtering from 
the blood certain materials that are very poisonous to the 
body. Should the kidneys fail to do their work, this 
poison would soon cause convulsions and death. 

THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE KIDNEYS. 

Alcohol has a severe effect on these organs, and gives 
rise to a serious disease, known as Bright's disease. 
There are other causes of this disease, but the use of 
alcoholic drinks is recognized as one of the most frequent 
of all. 



THE SKIN. 145 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

THE SKIN. 

The skin is the protective covering of the body. Its 
outer part is composed of hard and dry cells, in which 
there are neither blood-vessels nor nerves. This is 
called tlie cuticle. The cuticle may be pricked with 
a needle, causing neither pain nor the flow of blood. 
Just as soon, however, as the needle has reached the 
deeper part, called the true skin, it brings both pain 
and blood. It is possible to remove the cuticle by gently 
scraping the skin with a knife. The skin will then look 
red, and will be likely to bleed. 

The True Skin. The true skin, called the cutis, is 
filled with nerves and blood-vessels. It is impossible 
to put the point of a needle in it anywhere and not touch 
a nerve, giving pain, or a blood-vessel bringing a drop 
of blood. There are small muscles which contract the 
skin, giving it the appearance known as goose pim- 
ples. Some of the muscles, as shown in Fig. 48, are 
fastened to the hairs in such a way that they can make 
the shorter ones stand more nearly erect. In the 
deeper parts of the skin are two kinds of glands, — the 
sweat-glands, and the oil-glands. 

10 



146 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



The Sweat-Glands. A small magnifying-glass will show 
the openings of the sweat-glands on the ridges that appear 
so plainly on the ends of the fingers and the palms of the 
hands. These openings are close together, and look like 




i 



Y/:j.'c::^sf^^^ 







"?. 


- '.■1^^. 


^-.- ^ 


/i 


y'M 


-^^^'^ - 





Fig. 48. Section of human skin, magnified: (1) the outer layer, the epidermis; 
(2) the duct of a sweat-gland; (3) the gland itself ; (4) the ending of a nerve, 
for the sense of touch; (5) blood-vessels; (6) a hair-follicle; (7) muscle. 



little pits, or depressions. They are the ends of tubes 
which go down into the skin about one fourth of an 
inch, and then coil up in a round mass like a ball. There 
are about three millions of these glands in the whole 
skin ; their function is to take water and some other 



THE vSKIN. 



147 



substances from the blood and pour them on the surface 
of the skin, causing perspiration, or sweat. In fevers 
these glands arc inactive, and the skin becomes hot and 
dry. 

Two Kinds of Perspiration. Sensible perspiration is the 
secretion that accumulates on the surface in varying 
amounts. Tliis is most marked Avhen the body is active 
and when it is surrounded by warm air. There are 




Fig. 49. The surface of the skin magnified, showing the openings of 
the sweat-glands. 

many conditions that cause the amount of perspiration to 
vary, but the average for the year would be from two to 
four pounds for each day. 

Checkmg the Perspiration. The perspiration carries off 
certain poisonous matters with it. If the body be sud- 
denly cooled when it has been perspiring freely, the 



148 A HEALTHY BODY. 

work of carrying this matter off is at once thrown on 
other organs, and this frequently causes disease in them. 
As a result of this check, the kidneys frequently become 
diseased, and the whole body may be thrown into a high 
fe^er. This is also one of the most common causes of a 
cold. After exercising, or whenever the body is perspir- 
ing freely, it is well to remember the following rules : 
Do not get chilly ; do not sit in a draught ; do not re- 
main in a cool room ; do not drink too much cold water; 
do not cool the body too quickly ; let the body cool grad- 
ually, even throwing some light clothing over the should- 
ers while resting. To perspire is good ; to perspire freely 
after exercise is good ; but suddenly to check the perspi- 
ration, or to allow the body to cool rapidly, is positively 
injurious, and may prove fatal. 

The Oil-Glands. The oil-glands do not come to the 
surface, as do the sweat-glands, but each empties into a 
sac in which a hair rests ; so a hair has an oily substance 
poured around it continually. This is Nature's hair- 
oil. It makes the hair smooth and glossy, and, if the 
scalp be in a healthy condition, it will furnish oil enough 
to keep the hair soft and smooth. 

The Hair. The hairs are placed obliquely in the skin, 
as shown in Fig. 48. Hair is not hollow, as many people 
suppose, although in its centre there is a substance more 
porous than the outside. 

Hair grows from the bottom, from the bulb. When one 
hair is removed, another will grow in its place, provided 



THE SKIN. 



149 



the deeper parts of the skin be in a healthy condition. 
There are many diseases of the hair, of which some 
cause it to fall out, others to shorten, and still others 




Fig. 50. A human hair in its sheath, or follicle, magnified : H, the hair; M, the 
muscle; G, the oil-gland. 



150 



A HEALTHY BODY, 



cause the hairs to split. When we grow old. Nature 
furnishes us with " a crown of beauty/' not by giving 
us a dye to color the hair with, but by taking out the 

color of the hair and leav- 
ing it a beautiful gray or a 
pure white. In the major- 
ity of cases, though not 
all, it is possible to tell to 
what animal a hair belongs 
by its appearance under 
the microscope. 



The Use of the Skin. The 

skin is of great service to 
the body in many ways. It 
protects the delicate parts 
beneath it ; it throws off 
waste products of the body ; 
it regulates the tempera- 
ture of the body ; it con- 
tains the hair and the 
organs of touch. 






Fig. 51. Human hair 
as seen with a mi- 
croscope. 



Fig. 52. Cat 

hair as seen 
with a mi- 
croscope. 



Bathing. The whole body should be washed every 
day. Those who have long hair, however, would be 
wise not to wash the scalp daily, as if this were done 
it would take the hair too long to dry. It may seem 
strange to recommend that the body have a daily 
bath, when many people rarely bathe, and yet enjoy a 
fair degree of health. Still, this is no reason why our 



THE SKIX. 151 

advice should not bo heeded ; for it is a fact that the 
skin has a certain amount of work to do, and this it 
cannot do well if the sweat-glands do not properly act. 
It is evident that they cannot act if their openings are 
clogged up. If the skin cannot do its work properly, 
this work is left for the lungs and kidneys to perform. 
A neglect of the skin must make more work for the 
lungs, and especially for the kidneys. Only the purest 
and best soaps should be used on the body. 

Why bathe ? We should bathe for the following 
reasons : — 

Personal cleanliness is a duty. 

Bathing removes the dried products of perspiration. 

It makes the skin soft and smooth. 

It removes dirt that has accidentally been put upon it, 
and accompanying odors. 

Frequent bathing acts as a preventive to taking 
cold. 

It keeps the skin active, and thus relieves the lungs 
and kidneys. 

It enables the skin to act in a healthy manner, and 
thus removes one cause of fevers and skin diseases. 

It causes a healthy exercise, and thus promotes all the 
functions of the body. 

We should not bathe, — 

When fatigued ; 

Just before or just after a hearty meal : 



152 A HEALTHY BODY, 

In too cold or too hot water ; 

When the body is perspiring freely ; 

In cold water, if we feel chilly before entering. 

Hot baths are not so invigorating as cold ones. The 
body should be thoroughly dried, and rubbed briskly after 
each bath. 

A Good Complexion. No one who has a sickly body 
should expect to have a fine complexion. That this may 
be secured the whole system must be in a healthy con- 
dition, and the skin must be active and strong. Cos- 
metics, powders, and hair-dyes seriously injure the 
complexion. A healthy body has no more need of face- 
powders than it has of doctor's powders. But if the 
former are used the latter will quite likely be needed. 



^rEMPEKATURE OF THE BODY. 153 



CHAPTER XXV. 

TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY. 

Throughout the heat of summer and the cold of 
winter, the body maintains the same temperature. You 
may be in a very hot room one hour, and in a cold one 
the next ; but the bodily heat will be at a fixed point ; 
namely, 98i° F. This heat is the result of the many 
changes that are taking place in the tissues of the 
body. 

Warm-blooded animals, as men, dogs, birds, etc., are 
those whose temperature is generally above that of the 
air surrounding them ; while cold-blooded animals have 
a temperature about the same as that of the air or water 
surrounding them. 

To Cure a Cold. Usually after we have taken cold the 
skin is inactive. Hot flashes and chilly sensations creep 
over the body. A cold may frequently be broken up by 
restoring activity to the skin. Hot drinks, as hot lem- 
onade or hot ginger tea, and hot foot-baths, are simple 
remedies that will excite the skin and send the blood to 
the surface again. Such simple treatment as here sug- 
gested may prevent a long and serious illness. 



154 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Objects of Clothing. Food supplies heat to the 
body ; and we have already said that animal heat is 
caused by the changes going on in the tissues, — by the 
changing of food into tissue. One object of clothing is 
to prevent too great a loss of heat from the body ; for 
the air surrounding the body is nearly always cooler 
than the body itself. 

Clothing and Food. It follows, then, that clothing 
answers a purpose similar to that of food. Pood pro- 
duces heat, and clothing prevents its escape. Therefore 
poorly fed persons need more clothing in winter than 
those who are well fed. Men and animals do not need 
so much food when kept warm as they do when chilly 
and cold, and they can do much better work if well 
protected from the cold. Clothing protects the body 
from external injurious substances, and from the storms 
of rain, wind, or snow. It is moreover an ornament to 
the body. 

The Clothing of Animals. The lower animals have no 
choice as to what they shall wear. Nature gives them 
an abundant covering, which in some cases is very beau- 
tiful. She sometimes changes their clothing for them, 
as when the horse sheds his heavy coat of hair in the 
spring, that he may have a lighter one during the heat 
of summer. 

What shall we wear? But man is left to make his 
own choice of clothing. What shall we wear ? The 



TEMPEKATURE OF THE BODY. 155 

answer to this question has been the occasion of no 
small amount of study and care. Is it warm, — what 
shall we wear ? Is it cold, — what shall we wear ? Are 
we going to a party, — what shall w^e wear? The de- 
cision that has been given has cost, in too many cases, 
most severe pain, and even death itself. 

Clothing for the Head. The covering for the head is 
often either too heavy or too closely fitted. The scalp 
becomes heated. There is no proper opening for the 
hot air to escape, and headaches are of frequent occur- 
rence. Sometimes the men are inclined to speak lightly 
of the small bonnets of the women; yet in many re- 
spects such coverings are far superior to those worn 
by their critics. The small bonnet does not confine the 
air over the head, it does not produce heat, and is not 
too closely fitted to the scalp. 

The Weight of Clothing. Heavy clothing is not neces- 
sarily warm. The cloud worn by ladies as a covering 
for the head is very light, and yet it is very warm. 
There is a great deal of air confined in its meshes, and 
air is not a good conductor of heat. 

The shoulders should, so far as is possible, be made 
to bear the weight of the clothing. Then the lungs 
and heart above are not compressed, and the stomach 
and liver below are not affected. Clothing worn in this 
manner does not prevent the free circulation of the 
blood, does not compress any organ, and does not inter- 
fere with the natural, graceful movements of the body. 



156 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Too high a Temperature. We should avoid overheating 
the body, and thus causing it to become weak ; this is 
often done by wearing too much clothing, and by living 
in rooms that are kept at too high a temperature. The 
thermometer should not register over 70° Fahr. in our 
living rooms. 

The Clothing should be changed. All the clothing 
should be changed at night. Whenever you have been 
caught in a storm, and your clothing has become damp 
or wet, change it as soon as possible for dry. In the 
mean time it is wise by some exercise, as quick walk- 
ing, to keep the body from getting chilled. A brisk 
rubbing of the skin will aid in restoring it to its nor- 
mal condition after the chilling effects of the dampness, 
and thus possibly prevent a cold. 



THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE 
TEMPERATURE. 

The question we have to answer here is this : Do al- 
coholic drinks raise the temperature ? What truth is 
there in such a statement as this : '' It is a cold day, we 
must take something to warm us ; " or, '' We must take 
some wine with us, as it will be a long drive, and we 
shall get very cold." These statements are made on 
the assumption that alcohol warms the body ; in other 
words, that it raises the temperature of the body. Is 
there any truth in this supposition? 



TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY. 157 

This necessitates a careful study of our subject. 

The first effect of alcohol on the system, as we have 
already learned, is one of excitement. The capillary 
blood-vessels become distended with blood, more blood 
goes to the capillaries of the stomach, more goes to the 
skin, and the surface of the body becomes distinctly 
warmer. This stage of excitement causes an increase 
in the temperature. This is true of all animals, includ- 
ing man. This period is a brief one, yet it has given 
to alcohol tlie credit of being able to warm the body. 
The undue amount of blood alcohol sends to the sur- 
face is cooled there, and on its return, the heat of the 
whole body is lowered. 

Soon a great change takes place. The brief period 
of excitement is followed by a period of much longer 
duration, during which there is a rapid decline in the 
bodily heat. In birds this may eventually amount to 
as much as five degrees. In dogs the fall is not quite 
so much, — about three degrees. In man, the fall is 
often as great as two degrees, and in excessive drunk- 
enness it may be much more. The normal standard 
may be reached again in a few hours if the amount of 
alcohol taken is small ; but if enough be taken to cause 
prolonged sleep, several days may pass before the nor- 
mal degree is reached again. 

The great lesson to be learned is this : that after a 
brief period of excitement there is always a reduction 
of the animal heat. Therefore alcohol will not aid us 
to withstand the cold ; on the contrary, it Avill cause us 
to suffer more from the effects of the cold. 



158 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Testimony of Travellers. The Arctic explorer Dr. 
McRae says : '' The moment that a man had sv/allowed 
a drink of spirits it was certain his day's work was 
nearly done. In that terrific cold the use of liquor as a 
beverage when we had hard work on hand was out of 
the question." 

Another Arctic explorer, Adam Ayles, says that those 
of his men who used liquor occasionally did not bear 
the work of that extremely cold country nearly as well 
as those who never took a drop. 

Still another explorer. Dr. John Rae, says: " In nearly 
all the cases of death that I have heard of, it was found 
on inquiry that the persons so dying had taken some 
alcoholic drink." 

As a conclusion of this whole discussion, let us notice 
what one of the greatest physiologists has recorded. In 
a work on The Physiology of Alcoholics, by Dr. W. B. 
Carpenter, of London, is the following passage: — 

" My first illustration was from Sir John Richardson, a 
medical officer high in our naval service, who was early 
associated with Sir John Franklin in his Arctic explora- 
tions. It was, then, his conclusion that, even under extreme 
privation, the use of alcoholics did much more harm than 
good ; so that it was better to burn the alcohol in a lamp, 
and to heat tea or some other liquid with it, and by drink- 
ing this to get some real heating effect, than to put the al- 
cohol into the stomach. For what heat they got from one 
was so much gain; while the other, being only a stimulant, 
was followed by a depression which made the cold seem 
only the more severe. 

" On another expedition Sir John Richardson passed the 



TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY. 159 

winter with a party in the north of America, as near the 
border of the icy sea as they could reach. They were well 
supplied with food, and lived in a log-house which had been 
built for them by our Hudson^s Bay Company. Sir John 
had made it a strict condition that his party should go out 
upon strictly total abstinence principles ; he would not have 
any spirits at all. It was a part of his work to make a 
series of magnetic observations, and the magnetic observa- 
tory was a short distance from the house. Sir John said he 
was accustomed to go out at night from the house to the 
observatory without even putting on his overcoat. I asked 
him how cold was the temperature to which he exposed 
himself. He said that the temperature in the log-house 
was about fifty degrees above zero, and that outside it was 
fifty degrees below zero. Here was a change of one hun- 
dred degrees, which he found he was enabled to endure for 
one quarter of an hour without an overcoat." 



160 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER XXYI. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal 
cord, and the nerves. 

The Brain. We call the brain the seat of intelligence. 
It is a jellj-like mass, smTounded by membranes, and 
well protected from injury by the bones of the skull. 
It is full of blood-vessels ; some of these are quite large, 
but the majority are minute capillaries. The surface 
of the brain is not smooth, but is thrown into ridges, 
between which are depressions. 

The White and the Gray Matter. The brain consists of 
two kinds of matter, — the white and the gray matter. 
The former is composed largely of nerve-fibres, while 
the latter consists principally of nerve-cells. The gray 
matter is on the outside of the brain. It is the gray 
matter that commands, while the white matter obeys. 
The gray matter originates, and the white matter con- 
veys the messages. 

The Cerebrum. The part of the brain above the ears 
is called the cerebrum, or the great brain; the part 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



161 



at the back of the head, beneath the cerebrum, is called 
the cerebellum, or the lesser brain. It is supposed that 
the cerebrum is the organ of the mind. Here we think, 
and know, and reason. 




Fig. 53. Various forms of nerve-cells. 



The cerebrum is divided into two parts by a natural 
fissure in the middle line, passing from the front back- 
wards. From this it would seem that we have two 
brains, — a right brain and a left brain. But at the 
bottom of this fissure the halves are united by a band 
of nervous tissue (Fig. 55, 3) ; so doubtless their action 
is in some way connected. The ridges, or convolutions, 
of the cerebrum vary in different animals. As a rule, 
the more intelligent the animal, the more numerous are 
these convolutions ; the deeper the depressions between 
them. 

11 



162 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The Weight of the Brain. The brain of the elephant is 
the heaviest known, which weighs from eight to ten 
pounds. The brain of the whale comes next, which 
weighs from six to eight pounds. The average weight 




Fig. 54. The human brain, viewed from above : only the cerebrum is seen. 

of the human brain is, for the male, a trifle over three 
pounds, and for the female, about one third of a pound 
less. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 1G3 

Something more than Brain needed. It seems sometimes 
that a man may have a large and fine brain, a healthy 
body, and be in every way fitted to succeed in life, and 
yet lack the desire to put his powers into action. We 
say such a person has no ambition. He is disposed to 




Fig. 55. One half of the brain, — the inner surface: (1) the cerebrum ; (2) the 
cerebellum; (3) the band of tissue that unites the two sides of the brain; 
(4) the medulla; (5) the spinal cord. 

take life too easily. We must not only have a healthy 
body and a fine brain, but we must also have a desire 
to work, — an ambition to be among the best in all we 
undertake. 



164 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



The Cerebellum. The cerebellum is beneath the back 
part of the cerebrum. It has no convolutions, although 

there are ridges running 
over its surface parallel to 
each other. 

Have the Nerve-Centres 
the Sense of Feeling? The 
cerebrum and the cere- 
bellum may be cut, and 
portions of them removed, 
without causing pain. 
They have not the sense 

Fig. 56. (1) Brain of pigeon ; (2) brain n p -. . 
of frog, — both viewed from above. ^^ leeiUlg. 
There are no convolutions on the 

cerebrum. The Medulla Oblongata. 

At the upper end of the spinal cord, and between it 





Fig. 57. Side view of the whole human brain : (1) cerebrum; (2) cerebellum; 

(3) medulla. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



165 



and the brain, is an enlarged continuation of the spinal 
cord, called the medulla oblongata, which is well pro- 
tected by the thick bones at the base of the skull. 
This part of the brain, which controls the breathing 
and other important func- 
tions, must be regarded as / 

the most delicate portion of / \ 

the whole body. The cere- 
brum, or the cerebellum, 
may be entirely removed 
and the animal may live 
for some time. Portions 
of the cerebrum, cerebel- 
lum, or spinal cord may be 
removed, and the animal 
entirely recover. But if 
the medulla be destroyed, 
death will follow instantly. 
In fact the prick of a needle 
on a certain part of it is 
sufficient to cause death. 





The Spinal Cord. The spi- 
nal cord is nearly circular in 
shape, about eighteen inches 
in length, and half an inch 
in thickness. It connects 
above with the medulla, and terminates at the lower 
end of the spinal column in a number of fine threads. 
(Fig. 59.) The spinal cord, like the brain, is divided 



Fig. 58. Cross-sections of the spinal 
cords of different animals, repre- 
sented as twice the natural size: 
(1) horse; (2) ox; (3) man; (4) hog; 
(5) squirrel. 



166 



A HEALTHY BODY. 




into halves. A fissure extends down its front and 
another down its back, nearly dividing it. (Pig. 60.) 

From each half, or each side, of 
the cord there are given off thirty- 
one small cords, or nerves. 

Structure of the Cord. The cord 
is composed of gray and white 
matter, similar to that found in 
the brain. The gray matter is in 
the centre of the cord, and is col- 
lected together in such a manner 
that when the cord is cut across 
the gray matter resembles the 
letter H. The nerve-fibres go 
up and down the cord, and carry 
messages to and from the brain. 
After entering the brain these 
fibres are distributed through all 
parts of it, and are connected 
with the nerve-cells. 

The Nerve-Centres. The brain 
Fig. 59. View ofthe brain and and the Spinal cord are called 

spinal cord : c, cerebrum ; 

ci, cerebellum ; s, spinal col- the nerve-ccntres. From these 

umn;N, nerves for the arms ^-^^ maioritv of the UCrveS take 
and legs ; n, nerves going to j ./ 

the muscles and skin. their Origin. 




The Nerves. There are two kinds of nerves, — the 
sensory, or fibres of feeling, and the motory, or fibres 
of motion. The sensory nerves carry messages from 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 167 

different parts of the body to the nerve-centres. They 
convey to the brain such impressions as are produced on 
the tongue by anything sweet or sour ; or on the ear by 
harsh or gentle sounds ; or on the eye by colors. These 
impressions are made on the ends of tlie nerves ; they are 



Fig. 60. A cross-section of the spinal cord, as seen with a microscope. 

then carried by the nerves to the spinal cord ; they are 
then conveyed up the cord to the brain, where, in some 
mysterious way, we are informed of the facts going on at 
the ends of the distant nerves. 

The motory nerves convey messages from the nerve- 
centres to the muscles, causing them to contract. 

Each one of the spinal nerves is connected with the 
cord by two roots. One root enters the front of the 
cord, and is composed of motory nerves ; the other en- 
ters the back of the cord, and is composed of sensory 
nerves. (Fig. 61.) 



168 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



Eeflex Action. Reflex action is well illustrated by irri- 
tating the foot of a person who is asleep. The foot will 




Fig. 61. A diagram illustrating the origin of the spinal nerves from the spinal 
cord ; (3) is a spinal nerve; (1) and (2) are the roots, which originate from 
the gray matter of the cord ; G, a collection of nerve-cells: (1) the motory 
root , (2) the sensory root. 

be quickly drawn away from the threatened injury, and 
yet the mind will know nothing of it. Fig. 62 illustrates 




Fig. 62. A diagram illustrating reflex action: s, the skin; M, a muscle. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



169 



how the impression goes from the skin of the foot to the 
spinal cord, and then down to the muscles. 

The spinal cord is one great reflex centre. Impres- 
sions are carried to it by the sensory nerves, and, 
withont going to the brain, they are at once sent out 
to some muscle through the motory 
nerves. Even the will is not strong 
enough to control all the reflex acts, 
for if we inhale pepper, we either cough 
or sneeze, and cannot prevent it. It is 
purely a reflex act. We may determine 



^H 



not to sneeze, but it is of no use. 



M 



The Nerve-Current. The peculiar power 
carried by the nerves is called the nerve- 
current, or nerve-force. It travels along 
the nerves at the rate of over one hun- 
dred feet a second. We do not know 
what this nerve-force is, although we 
can interfere with its action. We may 
be seated in a cramped position, so that 
some nerve is pressed; the nerve-current is disturbed, 
and when we try to move the limb it gives pain. We 
say the limb is asleep. It may be impossible to 
move the limb at first, owing to a complete stopping of 
the current. 



Fig. 63. Nerve fi- 
bres, magnified. 



Study is a Healthful Exercise. The cerebrum is gener- 
ally regarded as the seat of the mind. We know that 
there is a very general law that the proper exercise of a 



170 A HEALTHY BODY. 

part tends to make it grow and develop. It is possible, 
therefore, by properly exercising the brain, to aid the 
growth and development of the intellect. While the 
mind can be greatly improved by exercise, it can also 
be injured either by over-exercise or idleness. 

Do you wish a healthy body? — then exercise and 
develop all its parts. Do you Avish a healthy mind, — 
then l^y the broadest foundation for a thorough and 
complete education. Work patiently and systemat- 
ically ; for study is health-giving : it is invigorating to 
the body, as well as to the mind. Study with a system, 
at regular hours each day. Retire early. Take plenty 
of out-door exercise. Eat healthy food. Have a time for 
everything, and have everything ready in time. Then 
will study become a pleasure. 



EFIECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 171 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

If the effects of alcohol on the nervous system were 
more fully understood, its use would be almost entirely 
abandoned by physicians, and it would be generally 
discarded as a beverage. 

There are many persons wlio begin to take some 
form of alcoholic drink because they think it may do 
them good. They are in poor liealth, and so they take 
this as a remedy, or a tonic. Soon, however, the habit 
is formed, and then they are certain they cannot live 
without it. 

One of the most striking things about alcohol is that 
it has a special affinity for nervous tissue. We mean by 
this, that after an animal has died from the effects of 
alcohol, and its different tissues have been examined by 
tlie chemist, it is found that there is more alcohol in the 
nerve-centres and the nerves than in any of the other 
tissues. Tliis is a forcible statement, and it comes 
from the highest medical authorities. 

After the death of a person who has used alcohol 
largely, alcohol has been found in the fluid that is nor- 
mally in the brain; and it has actually been distilled 
from the brain. 



172 A HEALTHY BODY. 

When alcohol is taken into the system it is carried to 
all the tissues, but more goes to the nervous tissue than 
to any other. Its effect on nervous tissue is just what 
might be expected when we remember that alcohol is a 
narcotic, — it paralyzes it. 

If alcohol really paralyzes nerve tissue, why does it 
appear at first to excite the person who takes it ? Every 
increase in the supply of blood to the brain or other or- 
gan is associated with an increase in the activity of that 
organ. Alcohol partly paralyzes the nerves that should 
control the movements of the blood in its vessels, and 
these vessels stretch, letting too much blood flow to the 
brain, which is thereby excited. But this excitement is 
not the healthy, trustworthy activity of a sound brain, 
but an untrustworthy mental condition, in which the 
judgment, the reason, and the conscience do not control 
the words and the conduct as they should. 

The relaxing of the blood-vessels through the influ- 
ence of alcohol causes the heart to beat faster. As the 
first effect of alcohol is thus to increase the action of 
the heart, and as this causes an extra flow of blood to 
the face, so it leads to similar action in the brain. 
There is too much blood present, and for a short time 
this excites the nerve-cells to increased action. 

Dr. Richardson, of London, once saw a man, while 
under the first exciting effects of alcohol, beheaded by 
a railway car. The bones of the skull were so broken 
that the complete brain lay open to view. It was not 
three minutes after death before the doctor was making 
a careful examination of it. He says that the odor of 



EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 173 

alcohol was most distinct. The membranes around the 
brain were as red as if they had been injected with 
vermilion. The white matter was so charged with blood 
that it could scarcely be recognized as white. One of 
the membranes surrounding the brain was so filled with 
blood that it did not look like a membrane at all, but 
rather like a thin sheet of clotted blood. 

After the period of excitement has passed, another 
effect appears. The person has to think of his walking, 
as he cannot think of something else and walk also. He 
has to think intently about the movements of his limbs, 
in order to make them correct. This shows that the 
spinal cord is coming under the influence of the alcohol. 
It is during this stage that the muscles of the lower 
lip begin to fail, and the muscles of the lower limbs 
become weak. Severe vomiting is likely to occur at 
this time, especially in young persons. It is an effort 
of nature to throw off the harmful invader, and is 
usually followed by relief. 

With the increased effects the cerebrum acts in a very 
disorderly way. The sentences are broken, and the 
ideas confused ; the nerve-cells are over excited, and 
the influence of the will is less and less powerful. 
Reason has stepped aside, and now the merely animal 
part of tlie man's nature assumes control. The cruel 
man becomes more cruel ; the untruthful, more false ; 
and the vile man shows his true disposition. The 
muscles respond to stern commands but feebly, and 
the limbs scarcely support the body. Words cannot 
be formed, and no articulate sounds escape. If these 



174 A HEALTHY BODY. 

effects extend but a little farther, the brain is com- 
pletely overpowered, the voluntary muscles cease to act, 
sensation is lost, and the body becomes a mere mass of 
flesh. 

Has the body any life ? Yes. The heart still beats, 
and the chest still heaves. Enough blood is sent to the 
lungs to get the oxygen required to keep the body alive. 

As a rule the brain loses its power before the heart ; 
that is, when death occurs from almost any cause, the 
person will become unconscious before the heart ceases 
to beat. So alcohol will make the person entirely un- 
conscious before it will stop the beating of the heart ; 
thus the life is spared. He cannot drink more until 
the body recovers sufficiently to restore consciousness. 
Did the heart fail before the brain, the number of 
immediate deaths alcohol causes would be increased a 
hundredfold. 

" But," it is said, '^ few go so far as to become intoxi- 
cated. The question is simply this : What effect do 
moderate and frequently repeated doses of alcohol have 
on the nervous system ? " We answer as follows : — 

There is without doubt a direct effect of alcohol on 
the nerve tissues. As alcohol itself is found in the 
brain, so it must affect the cerebral matter by direct 
contact with it. Alcohol also affects the brain by 
inducing changes in the supply of blood. 

Dr. Bartholow, a well-known medical writer, says 
in his work on " Materia Medica," in speaking of the 
effects of alcohol as a medicine, in the case of the pa- 
tient who has long been subjected to its influence, that 



EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 175 

" the nerve-cells of the gray matter arc more or less 
fatty and shi-unken." He further says that as a result 
of the shrinkage of these cells, and of the other tissues 
also, " the whole cerebrum becomes smaller, and the 
space thus made becomes filled with a watery fluid." 

Shakspeare, in the tragedy of " Othello," says, " Oh, 
that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal 
away their brains ! " and temperance writers have fre- 
quently quoted him ; but they little thought that one 
of the most noted medical men of this century would 
describe, in a work written solely for medical men, in a 
cool and logical way, the effects of this drug on the sys- 
tem, and would in that description confirm their state- 
ments. Temperance teachings and science are surely in 
accord. " Alcohol shrinks the brain," says Dr. Bartho- 
low ; and he further states that its use results in " im- 
paired mental power," " muscular trembling," and a 
" shambling gait." 

Dr. William A. Hammond, the eminent New York 
specialist, and one of the widest known authorities on 
nervous diseases, has experimented on animals to ascer- 
tain the effects of alcohol on the nervous system. If 
there was good in it, he wished to know what it was, 
and let his patients profit by it. He gave a dog three 
ounces of alcohol diluted with the same amount of water. 
This is what he says : " The dog retired at once to a 
corner, and lay down. In forty-five seconds alcohol 
appeared in his expired breath ; in five minutes he 
could scarcely walk ; in fourteen minutes he could 
not move ; in thirty minutes he was profoundly asleep. 



176 A HEALTHY BODY. 

The temperature, which was 101° before using the 
alcohol, had now fallen to 98^° ; and in one hour and 
twenty-two minutes after taking the alcohol, the dog 
was dead." 

In 1887 Dr. Hammond wrote to the Hon. H. W. Blair 
as follows : " Weighing all the points, for and against, 
mankind would be better mentally, morally, and physi- 
cally if the use of alcohol were altogether abolished." 

Dr. Percy gave a full-grown dog 2| ounces of alcohol. 
'' The dog did not even gasp, but with a loud, plaintive 
cry, died. Here the effect on the nervous system was 
as sudden and marked as that of prussic acid." 

DELIRIUM TREMENS. 

This disease may be caused by a single intoxication, 
but usually it is the result of the excessive and long- 
continued use of alcoholic drinks. It may attack a 
person of very nervous temperament, when compara- 
tively a small quantity has been taken. It is one of the 
most terrible of all the effects of alcohol. The vic- 
tim is wild with fear and dread. He sees multitudes 
of horrible creatures all about him to do him harm. 
The faces of his dearest friends now become like so 
many fearful, ugly monsters ; he strikes himself and his 
friends ; he is choking from thirst, and is constantly 
calling for more drink. There is no way of telling 
whom, among those who use alcoholic drinks, it will 
affect, nor when it will come. The attack may be post- 
poned until after years of continued drinking, or it may 



EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 177 

attack the one who has but recently become a victim to 
the appetite. 



THE EFFECT ON THE MIND. 

One of the first, and yet one of the most terrible, 
effects of alcohol is that it greatly weakens the will- 
power. The slightly intoxicated man goes about the 
streets singing and laughing in a very silly way. He is 
easily provoked, does very rash things, and becomes an 
object of sport to thoughtless boys. 

Consider a man that is honest and kind when sober. 
Who can tell what he will do when under the influence 
of the alcohol poison? If the drinking be continued, the 
will-power must sooner or later suffer. The passion for 
drink becomes greater and greater, until nothing will 
be thought too dear to exchange for it. The records of 
the various crimes show that a large percentage of them 
were committed while under the influence of liquor. 

The United States Commissioner of Education says : 
" From eighty to ninety of every one hundred criminals 
connect their crimes with intemperance. One of the 
judges of the city of Philadelphia says that four fifths 
of all the crimes committed in that city are due to the 
influence of strong drink." We could give a great 
many pages of such testimony, showing that the effect 
of alcohol is to lead men to commit deeds which they 
would shrink from if they were in their right mind. 

While such results follow the free use of alcohol, the 
frequent use of small doses, not sufficient to produce 

12 



178 A HEALTHY BODY. 

intoxication, also affects the mind, weakens the sense of 
right and wrong, and therefore tends to destroy charac- 
ter itself. 

TOBACCO. 

When once begun, the use of tobacco is quite likely to 
be continued, so strong is the habit. It frequently pro- 
duces a feeling of nervous restlessness, which may lead 
to the use of alcohol. It is well-known that one nar- 
cotic habit leads to another. Thus the narcotic tobacco 
often creates an appetite for the more dangerous nar- 
cotic alcohol. 

OPIUM. 

Opium is more pronounced in its effects than tobacco, 
and differs both from it and alcohol in this marked re- 
spect, — it may be used for years, and the secret be 
known only to the user. The odor of tobacco betrays 
its victim even when afar off; the teeth and the cor- 
ners of the mouth betray the chewer, while the smoker 
is enveloped in a cloud of his own creation. The victim 
of alcohol may be known by the unsteady gait, the 
bleared eye, the thick tongue, and the terrible breath. 
But the victim of opium has the secret all to himself. 
The opium habit has not become general in this coun- 
try, and it is to be hoped it never will ; as its effects 
are to be dreaded even as much as those of alcohol. 
The power of opium to relieve pain is wonderful, hence 



EFFECT OF OPIUM ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 179 

there is great danger that the opium habit will be 
formed Avhenever a person has long-continued suffer- 
ing. Opium affects all parts of the body, but especially 
the nervous system. Under its continued use the mem- 
ory failsj and there is a partial paralysis of the lower 
limbs, giving a stooping or creeping appearance. A dis- 
taste for food follows, the stomach refuses to act, and 
in many cases death ensues. 

The peculiar and most marked feature about the 
opium habit is that its victim lias an almost irresisti- 
ble desire to repeat the dose. The amount must be 
gradually increased to produce the desired effect, until 
sometimes the quantity taken is enormous. Under its 
influence the moral sense is destroyed, the mind weak- 
ened, and the whole body thrown into a dazed stupor, 
unfitting the victim for any sphere in life. 



180 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 

The Eye is well protected. The eye is well protected in 
its deep socket of bone. The brows project over it, and 
are covered with thick hair, which lies in such a direc- 
tion that the perspiration from the forehead will be 
carried to one side of the face, and will not run into 
the eyes. The nose serves to protect the eyes from 
injury. Directly in front of the eyes are two curtains, 
which can be quickly and freely moved. These are the 
upper and lower lids. The upper lid is much more 
movable than the lower. The lids have a row of deli- 
cate hairs on their edges, called eyelashes. These are of 
great use to the eye, even in the dark; for if an insect or 
any particle of matter comes in contact with them, the 
eyelids close at once, preventing the harmful object from 
touching the eye itself. 

The eyelids protect the delicate eye from heat and 
cold, they keep out dust and dirt, they regulate the 
amount of light to be admitted to the eye, and they 
keep the front of the eyeball moist. 



THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 



181 



The Oil-Glands. There arc glands in the eyelids which 
secrete an oily substance that fiows over tlie edges of the 

lids and keeps them from 
adhering to one another. 
It also tends to keep the 
tears from running over the 
edges of the lids and down 
upon the face. 

The Tears. There is a 
small gland in the outer 

Fig. 64 The eyelids of the r^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^f ^^^Yi 

viewed from the inside : (1) the lach- ^^ ^ 




rymal gland; (2) the oil-glands in the 
eyelids. 



orbit. This is called the 
lachrymal gland, and it 

secretes the tears. The secretion is a constant one, and 

the fluid is distributed over the front of the eyeball by 

the movements of the 

eyelids. The tears 

are carried away from 

the eyes through two 

openings. There is 

one opening on each 

lid near its inner 

extremity. The one 

on the lower lid may 

easily be seen by look- 
ing in a mirror and 

slightly pulling the 

lower lid down. It 

has the appearance 

of a very small dark 




Fig, 



(1) The lachrymal 
gland, that secretes the tears ; 
(2) the ducts that carry the 
tears from the gland to the 
eye; (3) the duct for the passage of the tears 
to the nose. 



182 A HEALTHY BODY. 

spot. (Fig. 65.) The two openings of each eye enter 
a duct leading to the nose, into which it opens. 
Generally the tears pass through this duct, but some- 
times more are secreted than can pass through it ; 
then they flow over the eyelids and down upon the 
cheeks. 

The Eyeball. The eyeball is a round body with many 
membranes, or coats, surrounding it. The figure shows 
that it is not per- 
fectly round, for 
the front part 
protrudes more 
than the other 
parts. This front 
and highly 
curved part is 
transparent, and 
through it the 
light readily 
passes. 

The colored ^^^* ^^" ^'"^^^P^Pi^' ^> the lens; N, the optic nerve. 

circle of the eye, which makes it appear black or brown 
or blue, is called the iris. It is found in the middle 
of the eye, with a circular hole in its centre, called 
the pupil. 

By the action of certain muscles the size of the pupil 
may be changed. If the light is too bright, the pupil will 
be made smaller, so that but little light will reach the 
back of the eye ; but if the light is very dim, then the 




THE SENSE OF SIGH1\ 183 

pupil will enlarge, in order that as much light as possible 
will reach it. 

The pupil is not found in all animals ; in the cat it is 
simply a vertical slit when it is contracted, but round 
when it is fully dilated. It may become so large in this 
animal that enough light enters the eye to enable it to 
see even when we think it is dark. 



How we see. The light enters the front of the eye, 
passes through the pupil, then through the lens, and 
lastly strikes at the back of the eye a delicate membrane 
which is directly connected with the brain by means 
of the optic nerve. When we look at an object, an image 
of it is made on this delicate membrane, and our brain 
sees the image. If we cut the optic nerve, and thus 
sever the connection between the eye and the brain, the 
image is made on the eye exactly as before, only the 
brain does not perceive it. So the eye simply acts like 
the camera of the photographer. The photographer 
sees, not his camera. It is the brain which sees, after 
all. 

Care of the Eyes. There are many causes of trouble 
with the eyes. If the whole body is weak, the eyes also 
are likely to be weak. They are easily tired, and the 
ordinary use of them causes them to become inflamed. 
As inflammation of the throat arises from a cold, so the 
delicate membrane covering the front of the eye becomes 
inflamed from the same cause. The eyes feel as if there 



184 A HEALTHY BODY. 

were sand in them, and at times they are used only with 
great pain. Whenever the eyes are inflamed, or their 
use causes pain, or when reading causes headache, a 
competent physician should be consulted, to ascertain 
what the trouble is, and to remedy it, if possible. 

It is a terrible misfortune to be blind, and very sad to 
have the eyes so weak that the pleasure of reading and 
studying must be denied. We should therefore use 
every possible care to prevent any such misfortune over- 
taking us. The following suggestions may aid one in 
preserving good eyesight : — 

Do not read by twilight. 

Do not use the eyes when they feel tired. 

The light should be clear and steady. 

It should be neither a dim nor a very strong light. 

Never look directly at a brilliant light, as the sun. 

Do not read when lying down ; the upright position is 
the natural and proper one. 

Do not read when riding in the cars or in a carriage, 
or while walking. The eyes become quickly tired from 
the irregular muscular action. 

Do not look too long at any one thing. Rest the eyes 
by looking around at frequent intervals. 

Squinting may result in serious trouble, as it strains 
some of the muscles of the eye. 

Do not face the light when reading in the evening. 
Put the shade on the lamp, and let the light come from 
over the shoulder. 

Do not allow strong sunlight to fall on the eyes upon 
first awaking in the morning. 



THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 185 

A book should be from twelve to sixteen inches from 
the eye when reading. 

Have any object that may have fallen into the eye 
removed as quickly as possible. 

Never rub the eyes to remove dust or dirt. These may 
be removed by carefully wiping with a folded corner of a 
soft handkerchief. 

Avoid reading and studying if the eyes are inflamed. 

Never use ointments or eye-washes without the advice 
of your physician. 

The eye is a delicate organ, and we cannot fully esti- 
mate its value to us. It is therefore extremely unwise 
to neglect it in any way, or to attempt to cure it of any 
defect, without the advice of a physician. We should 
use every possible means to keep it in perfect health, 
and when it shows signs of weakness we should at once 
seek proper medical aid. 

ALCOHOL AND THE EYES. 

The bleared eyes of the hard drinker are one of the 
tell-tales of his habits. The blood-vessels are filled to 
their utmost with blood, making the eyes look blood- 
shot. This inflamed condition is likely to continue as 
long as alcohol is used. After the habit is broken, and 
no more strong drink is taken, under proper treatment 
the inflammation may be relieved or entirely cured. 

The enlarged vessels noticed here are doubtless due 
to the same cause as the enlarged vessels of the nose ; 
namely, a paralysis of the nerves controlling the blood- 
vessels. 



186 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Persons who indulge in the use of strong drinks are 
very likely to have weak and inflamed eyes. 

TOBACCO AND THE EYES. 

The smoke of burning tobacco is very irritating to the 
eyes, and red edges to the eyelids are very common 
among smokers. In serious cases arising from the use 
of tobacco there are sharp pains in the eyeballs, and 
vision is greatly affected. There is no help for these 
troubles until the person stops the use of their cause. 



THE SENSE OF TASTE. 187 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 

The sense of taste is made possible to us largely by 
means of the tongue. The lining membranes of other 
portions of the mouth may have something to do with it, 
but it is principally due to the membrane on the upper 
surface of the tongue. 

The Tongue. The tongue, which is composed of volun- 
tary muscle, is easily moved in any direction. When 
the body is in a healthy condition, the tongue is moist 
and of a light red color. A dry tongue denotes fever, 
while a furred tongue is pretty sure evidence of some 
disturbance of the digestive organs ; a bright red tongue 
also is a symptom of disease. Therefore by the appear- 
ance of the tongue the physician can learn the condition 
of his patient. 

The healthy tongue is covered, over its upper surface, 
with minute elevations, called papillae. The largest of 
these are found on the back part of the tongue. They 
are arranged like the letter V, with the point of the V 
towards the back. Other and smaller papillae are easily 
seen, scattered over the tongue. Some of these papillae 
act as organs of touch, for the tongue has the sense of 



188 



A HEALTHY BODY. 



touch just as the skin. Other papillae act as taste- 
organs, and are connected with the brain by means of 
a nerve. 




Fig. 67. The tongue, showing the varieties of papillae. 

We cannot taste any substance until it is dissolved. 
If dry sugar is placed on a dry tongue, there will be no 
taste to it whatever. The saliva aids in dissolving the 



THE SENSE OF TASTE. 189 

substance we taste, and the movements of the tongue 
bring the substance in contact with its papillae. 

Smell and Taste. The sense of smell frequently con- 
fuses the sense of taste. We think we taste a thing 
when really it is the odor which is the more prominent. 
We dislike to take medicine because of its unpleasant 
taste ; so we follow custom and close the nose, and it is 
taken without trouble. In this case it is the odor we 
wish to get rid of rather than the taste. 

Flavors. If the eyes and the nose are closed, the taste 
of an onion may be mistaken for that of some pleasant 
fruit. 

We may become so accustomed to the taste of certain 
articles of food as to think them very agreeable, although 
at first they might be very disagreeable to us. Many per- 
sons at first dislike the taste of tomatoes or olives, or even 
oysters, but soon they acquire a great liking for them. 

Only one flavor can be appreciated at a time. If more 
than one be tried at a time, the result is a confused taste. 
A strong flavor may so affect the parts that a weaker 
flavor may immediately follow it without being noticed. 
Advantage is often taken of this in giving medicine. 
A strongly flavored fluid is taken into the mouth, and 
immediately after the disagreeable dose is swallowed, 
followed by more of the strong flavor first used. 

The practice of eating cloves and other spices is a 
very harmful one, as it is likely to destroy the sense of 
taste and seriously disturb the action of the stomach. 



190 A HEALTHY BODY. 

TOBACCO AND TASTE. 

Tobacco has the power to blunt greatly the sense of 
taste. The papillae of the tongue may become so pene- 
trated with it that there is a flavor of tobacco in the 
mouth continually ; hence more flavors and stronger 
ones must be used, that they may be noticed. 



THE SENSKIS OF SMELL, ETC. 191 



CHAPTER XXX. 

THE SENSES OF SMELL AND TOUCH. 

The Sense of Smell When certain substances are 
brought near the nose they produce a peculiar sensa- 
tion which we call an odor. It is difficult to describe 
the odor of objects, since we cannot see or measure 
it. 

The sense of smell is of great service to us in many 
ways. When we are conscious of any bad smell in the 
air, we know that it is unfit to breathe ; when food has 
a tainted odor, it should not be eaten. Many of the 
disagreeable odors come from substances that are harm- 
ful to the body, while agreeable odors are frequently not 
only pleasant, but healthful also. 

Some odors may be carried for a long distance. It is 
said that persons on board vessels at sea have detected 
the odor of cinnamon which grew on a shore over two 
hundred miles away. 

The Sense of Touch. The sense of touch resides in 

little bodies found in the skin. They are seen in 

Fig. 48, at 4. These little bodies are attached to 
nerves which convey the sensation to the brain. 



192 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Acuteness of Sensation. We may easily ascertain for 
ourselves which parts of the body are the most sensi- 
tive. Take two pins and hold their points at least an 
inch apart. Press them lightly against the skin on the 
back of the wrist of another person, being careful that 
both points come in contact with the skin at the same 
time. Repeat the experiment, bringing the pins a trifle 
nearer together each time. Soon the sensation will be 
as if only one point was touching the skin. Make a 
note now how near together the points are. Try the 
same experiment on the inside of the first finger. It 
will be found that the points may be brought much 
nearer together before the two points will feel as one, 
— which shows that the sense of touch is much more 
delicate at this place. 

The Education of Touch. The sense of touch may be 
highly developed. Blind persons can read their Bibles 
very rapidly by passing the fingers over the pages of raised 
letters ; their sense of touch is so delicate that the form 
of the slightly raised letter is made very clear to them. 

Feelers. Many of the lower animals are provided with 
'' feelers," in order that they may detect an object near 
them. The whiskers of the cat are probably for this 
purpose. The skin of that animal is so covered with 
hair that it can be of but little use as an organ of 
touch ; therefore Nature has given it special prolonga- 
tions, called " feelers." These feelers are fastened deep 
in the skin, and are attached to nerves which convey 
impressions directly to the brain. 



THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 193 

It is said that a cat cannot get out of a totally dark 
room if its whiskers have been cut off. It will run 
against the wall or articles of furniture, and will not 
make its way out by any opening left for it, while if 
its whiskers are uncut it will readily find its way out. 



13 



194 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

THE SENSES OF TEMPERATURE, 
WEIGHT, AND HEARING. 

The Sense of Temperature. Whenever our bodies come 
in contact with a substance, we are able to tell whether 
it is hot or cold. The faculty by which we are enabled 
to do this is called the " temperature sense." This is 
situated in the skin, the mouth, the throat, and at the 
entrance of the nose. 

The Sense of Weight. This is also called the " muscular 
sense." By it we are enabled to judge the weight of 
bodies. By long practice persons are able to detect 
very slight differences between bodies even so light as 
coins. 

The Sense of Hearing. The organs of hearing are 
among the most difficult parts of the body to under- 
stand. We see only the outer ear, but the anatomist 
speaks of two others, — the middle and the inner ears. 

The Outer Ear. The outer ear is the peculiarly sliaped 
piece of cartilage on the side of the head by means of 
which we catch sound-waves. This is very easily seen 



THE SENSE OF HEARING. 



195 



to be true of the lower animals : they always turn their 
ears in the direction from which the sounds come. Even 
man is governed by the same principle, and when his 
hearing is not acute he will place his hand behind his 
ear and push it forward, at the same time making it 
larger by adding to it the width of his hand. The 




Fig. 68. The ear : c, the auditory canal, that leads to the middle ear; M, the 
middle ear, or drum. The drum-head is the curved white line to the left of 
the letter M ; I, the inner ear ; n, the nerve of hearing, going to the brain ; 
T, the tube leading from the middle ear to the upper part of the pharynx. 

auditory canal, which is a part of the outer ear, and leads 
to the middle ear, is about an inch in length. 



The Middle Ear. At the inner end of this canal is the 
drum-head, while on the inner side of this membrane is 
the drum, or middle ear. 

The drum-head completely shuts off communication 
between the outer and middle ears. When sound-waves 



196 A HEALTHY BODY. 

strike the drum-head, they cause it to vibrate, — much 
as the head of an ordinary drum vibrates when struck. 

The middle ear, which is filled with air, is connected 
with the throat by means of a canal called the Eustachian 
tube. Through this tube air is admitted into the drum. 

The Inner Ear. The inner ear contains tlie ends of the 
nerve of hearing, or auditory nerve. This part of the 
ear is carefully protected by the solid bones of the skull. 

Causes of Deafness. We have spoken of a passage lead- 
ing from the middle ear to the throat. We can under- 
stand now how it is that throat diseases often cause 
deafness, for the inflammation may readily extend from 
the throat along the Eustachian tube until it reaches the 
middle ear and affects it. 

Blows on the ears are always dangerous, and may 
cause sudden and permanent deafness. Though the 
blow itself may not be severe enough to cause pain, yet 
the force of the compressed air against the delicate, 
structures of the ear may occasion mischief. Another 
cause of deafness is the frequent cleaning of the ears 
with a pin or other hard instrument. This is likely to 
give rise to a slow inflammation, which may not show 
itself for months, or even years, but then gradual failing 
of the hearing will be noticed. Loud sounds, as the 
firing of cannon, also have caused deafness. 

How to preserve the Hearing. Never use a pin or other 
hard substance to clean the ear. The ordinary washing 
and wiping with a towel are sufficient to insure perfect 



I 



TIIK SENSE OF HEARING. 197 

cleanliness. The wax that is in the deeper parts of the 
outer ear is iiscrul for keeping out insects and dust. Do 
not allow cold air to blow into the ear ; it is a frequent 
cause of catching cold. A good practice is to bathe the 
outer ear frequently with cold water. Inflammation of 
the ear is often occasioned by diving; it is well before 
plunging into water to place pieces of cotton in the ears. 
Never speak loudly in any one's ear. Should an insect 
get into the ear, have a competent person pour a little 
sweet oil into it ; this will either kill the insect or drive 
it out. 



198 A HEALTHY BODY. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

OPIUM, TEA, COFFEE, AND TOBACCO. 

Opium is made from the juice of a plant called the 
white poppy, which is largely grown in India and China. 
Incisions are made in the unripe seed-vessels, from 
which a white, milky juice escapes. This is allowed 
to dry, when it is gathered as a brown, thick gum. 
This gum is opium. From opium are made such drugs 
as morphine, laudanum, and paregoric. 

Used very generally in some Countries. In China the 
people use opium as generally as Americans use tobacco. 
But in this country, as a rule, it is first taken, by the 
advice of the physician, to relieve pain. 

How the Habit is formed. If the pain recurs as soon as 
the effects of the drug have passed off, another dose 
is taken, so that if the pain continues for weeks, and 
the use of the opium is continued also, the habit is 
formed, and the drug is taken long after all necessity 
for it has passed away. 

Its Effects. Opium does not make its victim wild and 
uncontrollable, as does alcohol ; therefore it does not 



OPIUM. 1 90 

show its effects to others as plainly as does alcoliol. 
But on the victim himself they are probably greater 
than those produced by alcohol. ^len become stupid 
under its use, and gradually pass into a deep, heavy 
sleep. 

This deadly drug takes away the appetite, destroys 
digestion, interferes with the action of all the organs 
of the body, and powerfully affects the will. The opium- 
eater will sacrifice anything to get his favorite drug. 
He loses all sense of honor and truth, and nothing is 
too valuable for him to part with, if only it will procure 
him his favorite drug. 

None Escape. No one who uses opium escapes its bad 
effects. It appears to affect all alike, weakening both 
body and mind. 

The Physician can detect the Opium-habit. Its effects 
on the body — as shown by the listless eye, the stoop- 
ing figure, and the colored skin — enable the trained 
eye of the physician to detect the opium-eater with 
almost unfailing accuracy. 

Its Terrible Power. The power of opium to injure the 
body is terrible enough ; but when we consider that it 
will weaken and break down the higher part of our 
natures, even our sense of right and wrong, then we 
wonder how anybody of sane mind can become a victim 
to its use. 



200 A HEALTHY BODY. 

TEA AND COFFEE. 

These are so familiar to us all that it is only neces- 
sary to call attention to the fact that they are drugs, 
and are described in medical works as good for certain 
ailments. 

ITo Bad Effects sometimes. A cup of coffee with the 
morning meal, and a cup of tea with the evening meal, 
do not appear to have any bad effects on most adults. 

Bad Effects sometimes. If the coffee be taken late in 
the day, it is likely to prevent sleep ; and the use of 
strong tea continued for a long time is likely to cause 
nervousness and dyspepsia. 

Bad Effects on AU. Neither strong tea nor coffee can 
be used for any length of time in large quantities with- 
out bad effects on the system. Their use by the young 
is likely to cause stomach troubles, headaches, nervous- 
ness, and wakefulness. 

TOBACCO. 

Its History. When Columbus, in 1492, landed on the 
Island of Hispaniola, he sent out his men in all direc- 
tions to see what they could find in the new country. 
In a short time some of them returned to the ship and 
told him that they had seen men who appeared to 
follow a very singular practice. They carried tubes 



TOBACCO. 201 

in their moutlis, into which tlicy would put some kind of 
weed, and setting fire to this, they would blow the smoke 
through their mouths and nostrils. 

Origin of the Habit of Smoking. It is well for us to re- 
member that the liabit of using this weed comes to us 
from savages. The hideous signs of Indians and other 
fearful-looking objects seen in front of tobacco-shops 
forcibly remind us of this fact. 

Its Introduction abroad. In the year 1587 Sir Walter 
Raleigh sent a company of men to Virginia. When 
they returned they brought to him two vegetables, — 
the potato, and tobacco. Sir Walter procured a pipe, 
tried the tobacco, and soon became very fond of it ; but 
for some reason he kept its use a secret. 

The story goes that one day he sent his servant for a 
pitcher of beer. The servant, who returned sooner than 
was expected, seeing smoke issue from the mouth and 
nose of his master, immediately dashed the beer into his 
face and rushed from the room shouting for help, saying 
his master was on fire inside, and fast burning up. 

Efforts to stop its Use. Soon tobacco was being used to 
a large extent, and many of the wisest men of England 
foresaw some of the evils that would result from the use 
of such a powerful drug. James I., king of that country, 
therefore caused a heavy tax to be placed on tobacco, 
trying thus to limit its cultivation. He even wrote a 
book on its use, in which he said that smoking was a 



202 A HEALTHY BODY. 

practice " loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, 
harmful to the brain, and dangerous to the lungs." A 
little later the Russian Government tried to prevent 
smoking, with the penalty of the loss of the nose if a 
person were caught using tobacco ; and the Sultan of 
Turkey punished with death all smokers or snuff-takers. 
But the rulers of that day soon found that all they could 
say or do did not check the practice, which was steadily 
on the increase ; so they contented themselves with levy- 
ing a tax, thus enriching themselves at the expense of 
those who persisted in the use of tobacco. 

Nicotine. The acting principle in tobacco is called 
nicotine. This is a powerful substance, acting as a 
deadly poison to all forms of animal life. 

In a work written by Dr. Wood for the use of medical 
men only, he says : " In its action on the system, nico- 
tine is one of the most powerful poisons known. A drop 
of it in a concentrated form was found sufficient to kill a 
dog, and small birds perished at the approach of a tube 
containing it." The instance is given of a child eight 
years of age whose head was washed with the juice 
pressed from tobacco-leaves. It was thought the appli- 
cation would cure some slight trouble of the scalp ; but, 
on the contrary, it caused the most severe pain, and in a 
few hours death followed. 

Nearly all insects shun tobacco, hence it is used to 
protect furs and woollen garments from moths. 

Effects on Vegetables. Tobacco seems to destroy all 
forms of vegetable life. If plants be placed in a room 



TOBACCO. 203 

in which there is a strong odor of tobacco, as in tobacco 
factories, or in tobacco drving-rooms, they will gradually 
droop and die. 

The General Verdict. All medical writers are agreed 
that nicotine is one of the most deadly poisons to all 
forms of animal and vegetable life, and also that it is the 
presence of this poison in tobacco that gives it its power 
over those who use it. 

Its first Effects. The first use of tobacco almost invari- 
ably causes sickness. The healthy body feels its effects 
most keenly, and extreme prostration, nausea, and vom- 
iting follow. If its use be persisted in, however, these 
acute symptoms disappear, and the slower effects begin 
to appear. 

Its Effects on the Yoiing. The effects on the body of the 
adult vary greatly, according to the individual, his hab- 
its of life, etc. It is certainly true that tobacco has a 
much more severe effect on some than on others. It 
may be laid down as a rule, from which there is scarcely 
an exception, that its effects on the systems of all who 
use it before the system is well matured, say twenty-five 
years of age, a,re bad ; while if its use is begun earlier 
in life, at ten or twelve years, the effects are much more 
serious. 

The General Rule. As a rule, the younger the person 
using tobacco, the more active will its effects be. This 
will hold true until manhood is reached. 



204 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Especially bad for Boys. Other things being equal, a 
boy who smokes or chews tobacco before he is twelve or 
fourteen years of age must expect to be shorter in stat- 
ure, weaker in muscle, and to show less fitness in his 
studies than his companion who does neither. 

Wise Laws. The effect of tobacco on the boys in the 
public schools in Paris was shown by their pale faces, 
weak muscles, imperfect circulation of the blood, and 
consequent poor recitations. On account of this, the 
Minister of Public Instruction issued an order forbidding 
its use by the students. 

Some of the earlier laws of New England were wise in 
this respect. One ordained that no person under twenty 
years of age should use tobacco without first obtaining a 
certificate from a physician to the effect that the tobacco 
would be good for him. 

The use of tobacco is prohibited in the military and 
naval schools of the United States Government because 
of its bad effects on the young men who are to become 
sailors or soldiers. 

It shortens Life. Dr. A. B. Palmer, who was a profes- 
sor for over thirty years in the Medical College with 
which the writer is connected, said that " boys and young 
men who use tobacco lose one fifth of the enjoyment 
and value, and at least one tenth of the length, of their 
lives." 

Exceptions do not constitute a Rule. It is nothing in 
favor of tobacco that some persons can use it without 



TOBACCO. 205 

apparent bad effects, any more than it is an argument 
in favor of alcohol that some persons do not appear, at 
first, to be harmed by it. 

We know two persons who are made very sick every 
time they taste honey ; yet it w^ould be foolish for us to 
say, because of this, that honey makes everybody sick, 
and therefore should not be used. Such cases are the 
exceptions, not the rule ; they do not serve as guides for 
us at all. 

General Effects. Tobacco lessens the natural appetite 
for food and injures digestion. It irritates the mouth 
and throat, and frequently causes the voice to be- 
come husky and coarse. It makes the body restless and 
nervous, causing a peculiar sinking sensation at the 
stomach, which strongly tempts the smoker to try the 
effects of some alcoholic drink. Moreover, it causes the 
sight to become weak, and gives rise to ringing, buzzing 
noises in the ears. It affects the action of the heart, 
making it beat unsteadily, and leading to dizziness and 
rushing of blood to the head. It disturbs the sleep with 
distressing dreams. It weakens the action of the mus- 
cles, causing them to tremble. All these and other 
ill effects may be easily prevented, simply by letting 
tobacco alone. 

There are three classes of persons on whom its effects 
may be studied : — 

First, those who do not find any, or only a few, of 
these effects immediately following its use. A very 
small number belong to this class. 



206 A HEALTHY BODY. 

Second, those who notice a large number of these 
effects. Only a few of them may be present at' one 
time, but sooner or later a large number of them will 
be experienced. To this class belong a majority of 
those who use tobacco. 

Third, those who find that even the use of a small 
quantity of this drug brings upon them all the more 
severe symptoms mentioned above. They are made ill 
not only the first time, but every time they attempt to 
use it in any form ; it acts as a poison each time it is 
taken. This class is about as large as the first. 

It is a Filthy Habit. Chewing or smoking is a filthy 
habit, especially the former ; while the use of tobacco 
in any way imparts a strong, disagreeable odor to the 
breath and clothing, which would be condemned socially 
if so many were not addicted to it. 



ALCOHOL AND LONG LIFE. 207 



CHAPTER XXXIIL 

ALCOHOL AND LONG LIFE. 

It is a fact that those who never indulge in alcoholic 
drinks, and do not use any of the narcotic drugs, have 
a prospect of living longer than those who do use them. 
We have learned that some diseases are caused by alco- 
hol, and physicians know that many diseases are made 
worse by it. If a person has led a temperate life he will 
be more likely to recover from a severe illness than one 
who has been intemperate. 

Two of the largest life insurance companies in Eng- 
land insure persons who never use intoxicating drinks 
at much lower rates than they insure others. Officers 
of these companies tell us that a temperate person at the 
age of twenty may be expected to live forty-four years 
longer ; while if one is intemperate at twenty, he may be 
expected to live only fifteen years more. Twelve presi- 
dents of life insurance companies testify that the use of 
intoxicating drinks tends greatly to shorten life. Dr. 
Willard Parker, one of the greatest physicians who ever 
lived, said in a public lecture that " one third of all the 
deaths in New York city were caused, directly and in- 
directly, by the use of alcoholic drinks." 



208 A HEALTHY BODY. 

A physician who has examined the causes of the dis- 
eases and deaths of thousands of persons has recently 
said : '' Alcohol is a poison, and belongs on the shelf of 
the druggist with other poisons." He adds that users 
of strong drink are more subject to acute diseases than 
those who do not use them, and that these diseases are 
more likely to prove fatal to the former than to the 
latter. 

We thus learn that the use of alcoholic drinks tends 
to shorten life, to make the body more subject to disease, 
and to render diseases more fatal. The testimony of 
Dr. Parker, which could be multiplied many times over 
by that of other eminent men, shows that if we hope to 
live to a good old age we must not indulge in any kind 
of strong drink. 

The fact that a few drink and live to be old, is 
nothing in favor of the use of alcohol. Sometimes a 
man is either so very large or so very small that he is 
exhibited in a show; but all men must not be judged by 
these exceptions. It would be foolish to say that all 
men are either very large or very small just because it 
might be possible to find one or two of that description. 
So it may be possible to find a man who has taken 
strong drink for years, and yet lives longer than many 
of his temperate neighbors. But such cases are rare 
exceptions, and of no assistance to us. For one such 
case there are a thousand where persons have been 
killed by the use of liquor. There are but few excep- 
tions to the rule, which is : Alcohol weakens all the 
powers of man, and greatly shortens his days. 



WHAT THE AUTIIORITIKS SAY. 209 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

WHAT THE AUTHORITIES SAY. 

We might fill a large book with extracts from the 
writings of men who are eminent in all fields of work, 
showing the terrible effects of alcoholic drinks on the 
human body. We propose to quote a very few, that 
our young people may read what those who are most 
competent to judge have to say. 

The International Medical Congress at Philadelphia 
in 1876 said : '' Alcohol is not shown to have a definite 
food-value." 

Dr. Willard Parker, one of the most eminent medical 
men this country has produced, says: "Alcohol is an 
irritant poison, having no place in a healthy system." 

Some of the leading dispensatories define alcohol as a 
poison. Drs. Taylor and Orfila, authors of standard 
works on toxicology, class it as a poison, and it is de- 
clared to be such by leading physicians in this country 
and in Europe. 

Mr. Locke, familiarly known as Petroleum Y. Nasby, 
took great pains to visit a large number of leading phy- 
sicians in order to obtain their opinions as to the effect 
of alcoholic drinks on the human body. He says : 

14 



210 A HEALTHY BODY. 

" The report they present is simply terrible. The habit 
of drinking fastens itself on its victim, and daily be- 
comes more and more the wretched man's master, clog- 
ging up his liver, rotting his kidneys, decaying his 
heart, and stupefying and starving his brain, fastening 
upon him rheumatism, erysipelas, and all manner of 
painful diseases, and finally dragging him down to the 
grave at a time when other men are in their prime of 
mental and bodily vigor." 

The noted Sir Henry Thompson, of London, says : " I 
have no hesitation in attributing a very large proportion 
of the most painful and dangerous diseases which come 
under my care to the ordinary and daily use of the fer- 
mented drinks taken in a moderate quantity." 

Dr. G. S. Howe and Dr. Willard Parker both testify 
that one lialf of the idiots are children of those who 
have been liarmed by drink. Dr. Howe ascertained the 
parentage of three hundred idiots, and found that one 
hundred and forty-five of them were the children of 
habitual drunkards, and over three fourths the children 
of intemperate parents. 

Professor Mcintosh says that " five sixths of all who 
have fallen by cholera in England were persons of in- 
temperate habits." 

Dr. Adams, who is a professor in the Medical Depart- 
ment of the University of Glasgow, says : " Alcoholic 
drinks are one of the great predisposing causes of 
cholera. I would place the sign over every shop in the 
city where liquor is sold, Cholera sold here." 

In France, during the last war with Prussia, it was 



WHAT THE AUTHORITIES SAY. 211 

found that over one half of all tlic cases of insanit) were 
from the use of alcohol. 

In the lunatic asylum at Dublhi " nearly one half of 
the cases were known to be caused by the use of alcoliol 
alone." 

In America the proportion is not so great ; but even 
here it is surprisingly large. It is estimated that twenty 
of each one hundred insane persons are so afflicted as a 
direct result of the use of alcohol, and thirty-five of each 
one liundred as an indirect result, making in all fifty- 
five of each one hundred insane persons so afflicted on 
account of the use of some form of alcohol. 

Dr. N. S. Davis, of Chicago, who is a teacher, writer, 
author, and physician of the very highest authority, a 
man well known at home and abroad, says : '' After 
an experience of over fifty years, I still believe that 
there is no form of alcoholic drink either necessary or 
desirable for internal use either in health or in the 
various forms of disease ; but health can be better 
preserved and disease better treated without any use 
of such drink." 

Dr. A. C. Rembaugh, a prominent physician of Phila- 
delphia, says : " I have no use for alcohol as a food, 
drink, or medicine, and I believe it is never used, in 
large or small quantities, without absolute harm to the 
one partaking of it." 

Dr. William Pepper, also of Philadelphia, and Pre- 
sident of the University of Pennsylvania, a teacher, 
author, and physician of the widest reputation, says : 
" The habitual use of alcoholic drinks by healthy per- 



212 A HEALTHY BODY. 

sons is highly injurious, and involves the risk of devel- 
oping serious disease." 

But we need not quote farther. The testimony of all 
who have given the subject careful attention goes to 
prove that the effects of alcoholic drinks on the human 
body are highly injurious. 



BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES. 213 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES. 

The knowledge we have acquired of anatomy, phy- 
siology, and hygiene should be of great assistance to us 
in times of emergency, as when an accident renders it 
necessary that something should be done at once. To 
wait idly until the doctor comes may cost a life, while 
prompt and proper action wdll often greatly aid him, and 
may prevent a fatal termination to the accident ; though 
some persons feel that they must do something, no mat- 
ter what. Flurry often increases the danger, while a 
little cool judgment might greatly lessen it. To know 
what to do, and how and when to do it, is a great deal. 

When calling a physician, always inform him of the 
nature of the accident, that he may bring with him all 
necessary appliances and remedies. Examine an in- 
jured person with great care, as rough handling may 
open a wound which has ceased bleeding, making it 
bleed afresh, or the rough handling may cause a broken 
bone to injure some of the soft tissues. 

Unconsciousness. A person may be rendered uncon- 
scious from any one of a number of causes. Uncon- 
sciousness may be the result of an injury to the brain, 
or arise from alcohol or opium poisoning, or from loss 



214 A HEALTHY BODY. 

of blood, or other causes. The ordinary method of de- 
tecting unconsciousness is by touching the eyeball : if 
there is complete insensibility, the eyeball will not move, 
nor will the eyelids. The means of restoring conscious- 
ness depend upon the cause of unconsciousness. 

Fainting. A person who has fainted should be placed 
at once on his back, and the head kept as low as the 
body, and not raised until he has recovered. This 
should be done so that the blood may flow readily 
through the brain. To keep the head raised high, or to 
maintain the body in the erect posture, may cause a fatal 
termination to the attack. Dashing a small quantity of 
water on the face, and holding an open bottle of ammo- 
nia to the nose, will perhaps aid. All clothing about 
the neck should be loosened. Never give brandy or any 
form of alcohol in such cases; a cup of hot coffee is 
much better. 

Intoxication. When insensibility arises from intoxica- 
tion it is a more difficult matter to restore consciousness. 
As a rule, very vigorous measures are not successful, 
and are often harmful. 

Loss of Blood. When a person has lost so much blood 
that he is unconscious, he should be placed on his back 
with his head low. After the bleeding has ceased, he 
should be kept as quiet as possible until the doctor 
comes. If the body becomes cold, hot flannels and bot- 
tles filled with hot water should be placed around it. 



BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES. 215 

Shock. Sometimes persons become insensible in con- 
sequence of a blow, or through fright, or by a fall ; and 
yet none of these causes may be severe enough to injure 
in any way the organs or tissues of the body. As a rule 
it is only necessary to place the person on his back and 
give him plenty of fresh air. If the head is hot, a cloth 
moistened with cold water may be applied to it. 

Injury to the Head. If the unconsciousness comes from 
this cause, it is a very serious matter, and nothing can 
be done until the doctor decides just how serious the 
injury is. 

Fresh Air. Always give injured persons plenty of 
fresh air. Do not crowd about unless you can be of use. 
Only those who can assist should stand near an injured 
man, or even remain in the same room. 

Fire. The clothing may take fire, and produce results 
that may prove fatal in a short time. When we see a 
person on fire we should grasp the nearest rug, shawl, 
blanket, large cloak, or heavy curtain, and wrap it 
tightly about his body. After this is done, it is wise to 
roll him on the ground, which, with the blankets, will 
be likely to smother the flames. If no blankets are at 
hand, then the simple rolling on the ground may put 
out the fire. 

Bums and Scalds. Great relief will be given in cases 
of burns or scalds by covering them with soft linen or 
cotton cloth that is saturated with a solution of common 
soda. Put a tablespoonful of common soda in a cup 



216 A HEALTHY BODY. 

of water and stir thoroughly. Wet the cloth in this 
water, and place it upon the injured parts. This will 
generally relieve the sting and ache of the burn. If no 
soda is at hand, then try cream, or a thick coating of 
dry flour. A liniment of equal parts of sweet oil and 
lime water is very useful. 

Sunstroke. In cases of sunstroke the skin and head 
are usually very hot, and there may be partial or com- 
plete unconsciousness. Remove the patient to a cool 
place, lay him on his back, with the head slightly raised, 
and apply cold cloths to the head, at the same time 
bathing the face and head with cold water. 

Sprains. Sprains are oftentimes of a serious nature, 
and recovery from them is usually slow, sometimes leav- 
ing a stiff joint. Tliis should be bathed in either hot or 
cold water, whichever gives the greater relief. 

Fractures and Dislocations. If a bone is broken or 
thrown out of joint, or if this is thought to be the case, 
the injured part should be kept perfectly quiet, and the 
patient made as comfortable as possible. It is better to 
wait a few hours for the physician to come, than to 
attempt to set a broken bone, or to handle the injured 
parts to learn what is the matter. 

Bleeding. Nothing is more alarming than the sight 
of flowing blood. To check it often requires prompt 
action ; nay, promptness may save a life. Do not 
try to stop the bleeding by tying great quantities of 



BEFORE THE DOCTOR COxMES. 217 

clothing around the injured parts ; it will soak up 
the blood, while the bleeding may continue beneath. If 
the blood comes from an artery, it will flow in jets or 
spurts ; but if it arises from a vein, the stream will be 
a steady one. If the bleeding comes from the surface 
of the body, it may generally be checked by pressure. 
This may be applied with the fingers ; or if the wound 
is on the surface over a bone, a piece of cloth may 
be folded so as to make a small pad and held tightly 
pressed to the wound by a bandage. If the bleeding 
is slight, frequent applications of cold water bandages 
will stop the flow. Bleeding from the nose is the most 
common and the least dangerous of all hemorrhages. 
It is generally sufficient to apply cold water to the fore- 
head or back of the neck, and to remain quiet for a short 
time. 

Poisons. Whenever it is feared that poison has been 
swallowed, it is safest not to wait until the doctor comes, 
but to cause vomiting at once, and thus get the poison 
out of the stomach before it is all absorbed. Vomiting 
is easily caused by giving the patient a large cupful of 
warm water in which there has been thoroughly mixed 
a dessertspoonful of ground mustard. If this does not 
cause vomiting in a few minutes, the dose may be re- 
peated. A tablespoonful of alum dissolved in a pint of 
warm water taken at once may be effective. Aid the 
drugs by thrusting the finger down the throat. After 
the vomiting it is best to give a glass of milk in which 
are tlie whites of two eggs well beaten. 



INDEX. 



Absorbents, 138. 
Absorption, 101. 
Acetous fernieiitatioii, 16. 
Adam's Apple, 127. 
Air, 110. 

expired, 132, 

fresh, 215. 

pure, 137. 
Alcohol, 7. 

a food, 73. 

a poison, 209. 

and cholera, 210. 

and insanity, 211. 

and long life, 207. 

authorities on, 209. 

cause of disease, 210. 

how made, 8. 

in fermented liquors, 15. 

of no use, 211. 

where found, 9. 
effects of, on the — 

arteries, 124. 

blood, 112. 

bones, 43. 

eyes, 185. 

heart, 123. 

kidneys, 144. 

liver, 98. 

lungs, 134. 

mind, 177. 

muscles, 56. 

nervous system, 171. 

stomach, 95. 

temperature, 156. 
Alcoholic consumption, 134. 
Alimentar}' canal, 78. 
Anatomy, 21. 
Animal matter, 29. 



Appetite, its growth, 10. 
Apples, 67. 
Arch of foot, 37. 
Arterial blood, 109. 

and venous blood, 110. 
Arteries, 120. 

Bacteria, 16. 

Ball-and-socket joint, 39. 

Bathing, 150. 

Baths, 151. 

Beans, 66. 

Beef, 65. 

Beer, 14. 

a food, 75. 
Bile, 89. 
Bleeding, 216. 
Blood, 107. 

corpuscles of, 109. 

loss of, 214. 
Boiling, 71. 
Bones, 26. 

bending or breaking, 30. 

covering of, 32. 

hygiene of, 41. 

number of, 26. 

shape changed, 31. 

structure of, 28, 29. 
Brain, 160. 

weight of, 162. 
Brandy, 20. 
Bread, 14. 
Breathe, how to, 133. 

why we, 132. 
Breathing, 130. 

results of, 133. 
Broiling, 70. 
Burns, 215. 



220 



INDEX. 



Butter, 68. 
Butter-milk, 68. 

Cabbages, 67. 

Cakes, 72. 

Candies, 67. 

Canning fruit, 17. 

Capillaries, 120. 

Carbonic acid gas, 110. 

Cartilage, 38. 

Cells, 23. 

Cerebellum, 164. 

Cerebrum, 160. 

Cheese, 69. 

Chinese, foot of, 31. 

Churning, 68. 

Cider, 15. 

Circulation, rapidity of, 121. 

Clothing, 154. 

and food, 154. 

changes of, 156. 

weight of, 155. 
Clotting of blood. 111. 
Coffee, 58, 200. 

effects on digestion, 100. 
Cold, to cure, 153. 

to take, 134. 
Collar-bone, 36. 
Complexion, 152. 
Contagion, 138. 
Cooking, 70. 
Corpuscles of blood, 108. 
Crabs, 66. 
Cream, 68. 
Cuticle, 145. 

Deafness, causes of, 196. 
Decay, to prevent, 17. 
Delirium tremens, 176. 
Deodorizers, 138. 

Digested foods, absorption of, 105. 
Digestion, 77. 

time required for, 86. 

to have good, 93. 
Disinfectants, 138. 
Dislocations, 216. 
Distillation, 19. 

Ear, 194. 
Eating, 73. 



Eggs, 65, 71. 
Elixir of life, 7. 
Emergencies, 213. 
Epiglottis, 127. 
Exercise, 53. 
Expiration, 130. 
Expression, 54. 
Eyes, 182. 

Fainting, 214. 

Fat, absorption of, 105. 

Feelers, 192. 

Feeling of nerve-centres, 164. 

Feet, support for, 43. 

Femur, 37. 

Fermentation, 13. 

Fermented liquors, 13. 

Ferments, 8. 

Fire, 215. 

Flavors, 189. 

Floating ribs, 36. 

Fluids of digestion, 93. 

Foods, 60. 

how absorbed, 102. 
Foot, 37. 
Fore-arm, 37. 
Form, 41. 
Fractures, 216. 
Fruits, 67. 
Frying, 71. 

Gases in water, 63. 
Gastric juice, 86. 
Grains, ingredients in, 66. 
Gristle, 38. 

Hair, 148. 

Head, clothing of, 155. 

injury to, 215. 
Hearing, sense of, 194. 

to preserve, 196. 
Heart, 113. 

cavities in, 114. 

circulation through, 116. 

contraction of, 117. 

effects of alcohol on, 123. 
tobacco on, 126. 

sounds of, 119. 

rapidity of beats of, 119. 

valves of, 118. 



INDEX. 



221 



Heart, work of, 118. 
Heredity, 11. 
Hinge-joint, 3*J. 
Hip, 37. 
Histology, 25. 
Humerus. 37. 
Hunger, 77. 
Hygiene, 21. 

Inspiration, 130. 
Intestine, glands of, 93. 
Intoxication, 214. 

Joints, 38. 

kinds of, 39. 
Joint-water, 38. 

Kidneys, 143. 
Knee, 37. 

Lacing, tight, 13-4. 
Lamb, 66. 
Larynx, 127. 
Lead pipes, 64. 
Ligaments, 38. 
Lime in water, 63. 
Liver, 89. 
Liver-sugar, 92. 
Lobsters, 66. 
Loss of blood, 214. 
Lower limbs, 37. 
Lungs, 27, 129. 

blood-vessels of, 132. 

effects of alcohol on, 134. 
tobacco on, 134. 
Lymph corpuscles, 104. 
Lymphatic glands, 104. 
Lymphatics, 106. 

Mastication, 78, 81. 

Meats, 70. 

Medulla oblongata, 164. 

Microscope, 22. 

Milk, 69. 

Mineral matter, 30, 63. 

Mumps, 81. 

Muscles, 47. 

effects of alcohol on, 56. 
tea and coffee on, 58. 
tobacco on, 58. 



Muscular sense, 194. 
Mutton, 65. 

Narcotics and sleep, 141. 
Nerves, the, 166. 
Nerve-centres, 166. 

current, 169. 
Nicotine, 202. 
Nuts, 67. 

Oatmeal, 66. 
Oat starch, 22. 
Odors, 138. 
Oil glands, 148. 

of eye, 181. 
Oiling of joints, 38. 
Onions, 66. 
Opium, 198. 

and nervous system, 178 

effects on digestion, 100. 

general effects, 198. 

habit, 198. 

power of, 199. 
Oxygen, 110. 
Oysters, 65. 

Pancreas, 92. 
Pancreatic juice, 92. 
Parsnips, 66. 
Peaches, 67. 
Peas, 66. 
Pepsin, 86. 
Periosteum, 32. 
Perspiration, 147. 
Physiolog}^, 21. 
Pies, 72. 
Pleura, 128. 
Poisons, 217. 
Pork, 66. 
Portal vein, 104. 
Potato, 66. 

starch, 22. 
Pulmonary artery, 110. 

vein, 109. 
Pulse, 120. 

of tobacco-users, 126. 
Pylorus, 88. 

Reflex action, 168. 
Respiration, 131. 



222 INDEX. 


Ribs, 35, 


Thoracic duct, 104. 


Kuin, 20. 


Tobacco, 58, 200. 




cancer, 99. 


Saliva, 80. 


effects on bones, 43. 


Salt, 61. 


digestion, 98. 


Scalds, 215. 


the eyes, 186. 


Sensation, 192. 


the heart, 126. 


Shock, 215. 


long life, 204. 


Shoes, 47. 


the lungs, 134. 


Shoulder, 37. 


the nervous system, 178. 


blade, 36. 


the taste, 190'. 


Sickness, 64. 


the young, 203. 


Sight, 180. 


vegetables, 202. 


Skim-milk, 68. 


first introduced, 201. 


Skin, 145. 


general effects, 205. 


use of, 150. 


laws against, 204. 


Skull, bones of, 34. 


no use for, 99. 


Sleep, 140. 


Tongue, 187. 


Smell, sense of, 191. 


Touch, education of, 192. 


Smoking, origin of, 201. 


sense of, 191. 


Soups, 71. 


Trachea, 128. 


Spinal canal, 35. 


Trunk, bones of, 34. 


column, 34. 


Turnips, 66. 


cord, 165. 




Sprain, 38, 216. 


Unconsciousness, 213. 


Standing, 42. 


Upper limbs, 36. 


Starch, 22. 




absorption of, 105. 


Valves of the heart, 118. 


Starchy foods, cooking, 72, 


of the veins, 120. 


Stomach, 84. 


Veal, 66. 


hygiene of, 88. 


Vegetables, 72. 


Stooping, 41. 


Veins, 120. 


Sugar, 67. 


Venous blood, 109. 


Sunstroke, 216. 


Ventilation., 137. 


Swallowing, 83. 


Vertebra, 35. 


Sweat-glands, 146. 


Villi of intestine, 101 




Vinegar, 18. 


Taste, 187. 




Tea, 58, 200. 


Walking, 41. 


effects of, 100. 


Water, 62. 


Tears, 181. 


Well, location of, 64. 


Teeth, 79. 


Wheat, 66. 


Telescope, 21. 


starch, 22. 


Temperature, 153. 


Whiskey, 20. 


effects of alcohol on, 156. 


Wine. 16. 


Tendons, 47. 


Wrist, 37. 


Thigh-bone, 37. 




Thirst, 77. 


Yeast, 13. 



PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. 



A-ce'tous. 

Al-bu 'mi-nous. 

ATche-mists. 

Al'i-menfa-ry. 

A-nat'o-my. 

A-or'ta. 

Ar-te'ri-al. 

Au'di-t5-ry. 

Au'ri-cle. 

Bile. 
Bron'chi-al. 

Cap'il-la-ry. 

Car'ti-Ia£?e. 

Cer'e-bellum. 

Cer'e-brum. 

Chyle (kil). 

Chyme (kim). 

Cor'piis-cle (kor'pus-l). 

Cu'ti-cle. 

De-liri-um tre'mens. 
Di'a-phragm (fram). 

Ep'i-glot'tis. 
Ex-pi'ra-to-ry. 

Fe'mur. 

Gas 'trie. 

Hy'gi-ene. 

In-spi'ra-to-ry. 
In-tes'tine. 

Jaun'dice. 



Lach'ry-mal (lak'ri-mal). 
Lac'te-al. 
Lar^ynx (inx). 
Lym-phat'ic (lim-fat'ik). 

Mar'row. 
Mas-ti-ca'tion. 
Me-dul'la ob-lon-ga'ta. 
Mi 'cro -scope. 
Mu'cous (kus). 
Mus'cle (miis'sl). 

Nic'o-tine. 

(E-soph'a-giis (e sof a-giis). 

Pan'cre-as. 

Per'i-6s'te-um. 

Phar-ynx. 

Pupil. 

Py-16'rus. 

Res-pi-ra'tioD. 

Sa-li'va. 

Skere-ton. 

Skull. 

Spi'nal. 

Stim'u-lant. 

Tho-rac'ic. 
Tra'che-a (tra'ke-a). 
Tym'pa-num. 

Ven'tri-cle. 
Ver'te-bra. 
Virius. 



